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JAPAN  AND  ITS 

REGENERATION 


BY  THE 


Rev.  OTIS  GARY 


MISSIONARY  IN  JAPAN 


•     .  ,  •    »  ».  •  » 


NEW  YORK 

STUDENT  VOLUNTEER  MOVEMENT 

FOR  FOREIGN  MISSIONS 

1900 


C5^ 


\ 


y\/<L 


GIFT  OP 


Copyright,  1899,  by 
STUDENT  VOLUNTEER   MOVEMENT 
FOR  FOREIGN  MISSIONS 


•  •  •     •  •  • 

•  •  •  •    •  • 

•  •  .  •    •  •< 
»,•  •    •      •  • 


THE  CAXTON  PRESS 
NEW  YORK. 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

This  volume  is  one  of  a  series  of  text-books  primarily 
intended  for  mission  study  classes  in  institutions  of  higher 
learning,  but  also  likely  to  be  largely  used  by  church  and 
young  people's  mission  study  circles.  This  fact  will  ac- 
count for  its  condensed  style  and  for  some  peculiarities  of 
typography  and  paragraphing,  which  have  been  suggested 
by  five  years'  experience  of  the  Volunteer  Movement's 
Educational  Department. 

The  subject  treated  is  one  of  great  fascination  to  every 
student  of  history,  and  especially  so  to  those  who  are 
interested  in  the  progress  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  The 
reader  finds  here  the  story  of  the  most  astounding  trans- 
formation within  a  few  years  that  can  be  found  in  all 
history,  and  that,  too,  in  our  own  generation.  While  no 
one  can  claim  that  Japan's  regeneration,  which  has 
scarcely  more  than  begun,  is  wholly  due  to  the  work 
of  Christian  Missions,  it  would  be  equally  untrue  to 
overlook  the  importance  of  the  missionary  factor  in 
these  sweeping  changes.  The  aim  of  this  little  volume 
is  to  exhibit  the  interworking  of  the  many  agencies  in 
this  Oriental  renaissance  and  their  true  relation  one  to 
another,  as  well  as  to  clearly  depict  the  material,  social, 
and  religious  environment  of  the  Japanese  missionary. 

The  basis  of  this  text-book  is  the  admirable  volume 
entitled  "  Japan  and  the  Japan  Mission,"  which  is  pub- 
lished by  the  Church  Missionary  Society  of  London..  The 
editor  acknowledges  most  gratefully  the  kindness  of  the 
officers  of  that  Society,  who  have  allowed  him  to  use  freely 

m 


M126839 


IV  PREFATORY  NOTE 

such  portions  of  their  book  as  he  chose.  While  some 
pages  have  been  transcribed  with  little  if  any  change, 
more  than  half  the  present  volume  is  wholly  new. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  treatment  is  broad  and  catholic  and 
the  attempt  has  been  made  to  do  equal  justice  to  all  leading 
elements  that  have  entered  into  Japan's  recent  wonderful 
progress.  Inasmuch  as  more  than  forty  Protestant  mis- 
sionary agencies  are  represented  in  the  Empire,  it  was 
manifestly  impossible  to  even  summarize  the  work  of 
each.  As  was  done,  however,  in  the  case  of  the  text-book 
on  China,  "  Dawn  on  the  Hills  of  T'ang,"  published  in 
1898,  so  it  is  hoped  that  missionary  boards  will  issue  for 
use  with  this  text-book  special  sketches  of  the  work  of 
their  own  churches  in  the  Island  Empire.  Such  sketches 
will  greatly  increase  the  value  of  the  comprehensive  sum- 
mary found  in  the  present  volume. 

New  York,  June  i,  18^^, 


CONTENTS 


FAGB 


I.  The  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun,      .       .        .               ,      i 
II.  The  People  of  Japan,    . 19 

III.  Japan  in  Past  Times 35 

IV.  Religions  of  Japan, 40 

V.  Jesuit  Missions, 51 

VI.  The  Locking  and  the  Unlocking,       ,       .       ,       .58 

VII.  The  Revolution,     .        .        , 63 

VIII.  New  Japan, 67 

IX.  Modern  Missions, 75 

X.  Methods  of  Work, 99 

XI.  Present  Conditions  and  Opportunities,     .        .        .113 

The  Final  Outcome, 124 

Appendix  A — Formosa, 125 

Appendix  B — A  Select  Bibliography,  ....  127 

Appendix  C — Statistics  of  Christian  and  Mission- 
ary Work  in  Japan  for  the  Year  1898,       ,        .130 

Analytical  Index, 132 

Pronunciation  of  Japanese  Words,  .       .       .       .138 


JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 


The  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun 

1.  The  Name. — The  Japanese  call  their  country  Dai 
Nippon.  Dai  signifies  "  Great " ;  while  Nippon,  or  Nihon, 
as  it  is  sometimes  pronounced,  means  "  Sun-Origin." 
The  latter  part  of  the  title  was  probably  first  used  by  the 
Chinese,  since  it  was  from  the  Japanese  Islands  lying  to 
the  east  of  their  empire  that  the  sun  came  to  them.  The 
Chinese  pronunciation  of  the  characters  employed  in  writ- 
ing the  name  is  Jih-pen,  or  Ji-puan.  From  this  came  the 
name  Zipangu  by  which  Marco  Polo  introduced  the  coun- 
try to  the  knowledge  of  Europeans,  and  other  modifica- 
tions of  the  sounds  have  given  us  in  English  the  word 
Japan. 

II.  Situation. — i.  The  Japanese  Empire  consists  of  a 
chain  of  islands  stretching  along  the  northeast  coast  of 
Asia.  Formerly  it  claimed  the  southern  part  of  Sagha- 
lien ;  but  this  was  ceded  in  1875  to  Russia,  and  the  Kurile 
Islands  accepted  in  exchange.  The  Bonin  and  Loochoo 
Islands  are  now  recognized  as  belonging  to  Japan.  As 
a  result  of  the  war  with  China  its  domain  was  increased 
in  1895  by  the  addition  of  Formosa;  but  the  present  vol- 
ume does  not  deal  with  this  new  possession.  (See,  how- 
ever. Appendix  A.) 

2.  The  most  southern  of  the  Loochoo  Islands  is  in  24** 
north  latitude,  while  the  Kuriles  extend  nearly  to  51**. 
The  extremes  thus  correspond  very  nearly  with  the  south- 
em  part  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  Southampton,  England ; 
or  with  Key  West  and  the  northern  part  of  Newfound- 
land.    The  range  of  longitude — 124°  to  157®  east  of 


Z    ..     ,    ,.  JAPAN'  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

Gre'enwich^-ihay  be  compared  with  that  from  Boston  to 
Denver. 

3.  The  distance  between  the  largest  island  and  Korea 
is  about  one  hundred  miles ;  but  the  island  of  Tsushima, 
which  belongs  to  Japan,  is  only  twenty-five  miles  from 
the  continent  of  Asia. 

III.  Area. — i.  The  Japanese  Islands  have  an  area  of 
about  146,500  square  miles.  This  is  somewhat  more  than 
the  area  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (121,000  square 
miles),  two  and  one-fifth  times  that  of  New  England  (66,- 
500  square  miles),  and  about  equal  to  that  of  the  two 
Dakotas  (149,000  square  miles). 

2.  There  are  four  large  islands  and  more  than  two 
thousand  smaller  ones.  The  relative  size  of  the  former 
may  be  tabulated  as  follows : 

2  Shikokus=  I  Kyushu. 

2  Kyushus  =  I  Yezo. 

3  Yezos       =  I  Hondo. 

3.  The  name  Hondo,  though  not  in  common  use,  is  the 
proper  one  for  the  largest  island,  which  on  many  of  our 
maps  is  designated  as  "  Nihon  "  or  **  Niphon,"  the  name 
of  the  whole  empire  being  thus  incorrectly  applied  to  one 
island. 

IV.  Physical  Features. — i.  Though  there  are  a  few 
plains,  the  country  as  a  whole  may  be  considered  as  a  mass 
of  mountains.  These  sometimes  plunge  abruptly  into  the 
sea ;  but  in  most  places  the  shore  is  fringed  by  a  strip  of 
arable  land.  This  broadens  out  near  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers,  which  bring  down  great  quantities  of  soil  from  the 
hills.  The  more  lofty  mountains  are  from  four  thousand 
to  nine  thousand  feet  high. 

Mt.  Fuji,  a  beautiful  truncated  cone  towering  in  soli- 
tary grandeur  far  above  all  other  mountains  in  its  vicin- 
ity, rises  to  an  elevation  of  12,360  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the  Japanese  love  Fuji,  and 
that  even  foreigners  have  called  it  "  the  peerless  moun- 
tain." Its  unique  form  has  inspired  the  artists  of  Japan. 
It  is  frequently  the  central  object  in  the  background  of 
ideal  pictures.  It  is  painted  on  the  fan  that  the  Japanese 
uses,  on  the  screens  that  divide  his  rooms,  on  the  bowl 
from  which  he  eats  his  rice,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the 
delicate  china  cup  from  which  he  sips  his  tea ;  it  is  dyed 


THE  LAND   OF  THE  RISING  SUN  3 

upon  the  cotton  kerchief  that  the  laborer  knots  about  his 
brow,  and  is  woven  into  the  texture  of  the  silken  fabrics 
that  are  worn  by  the  wealthy. 

Most  of  the  mountains  are  of  volcanic  origin.  Some 
volcanoes  are  still  active.  De  Vries  Island,  lying  near 
the  entrance  to  the  Bay  of  Yedo,  is  constantly  wreathed 
with  smoke,  as  is  also  the  peak  of  Mt.  Asama,  northwest 
of  Tokyo.  Mt.  Aso,  in  Kyushu,  is  said  to  have  the  lar- 
gest crater  in  the  world.  The  last  eruption  of  Mt.  Fuji 
was  in  1708;  and  though  snow  may  at  all  seasons  be 
found  upon  its  summit,  there  are  places  where  the  ground 
is  so  hot  that  eggs  may  be  cooked.  In  1888  Bandai  San, 
which  had  been  quiet  for  more  than  a  thousand  years, 
suddenly  broke  forth  in  an  eruption  that  blew  off  one  side 
of  the  mountain  and  covered  a  large  section  of  the  sur- 
rounding country  with  stones,  mud,  and  ashes.  Several 
villages  were  destroyed  and  461  persons  lost  their  lives. 

2.  Most  of  the  rivers  are  necessarily  short,  since  there 
is  but  little  distance  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea. 
In  a  dry  season  there  will  often  be  little  more  than  a 
dry  bed  of  sand  and  stones  where,  after  a  few  hours  of 
rain,  a  wide  and  tumultuous  torrent  blocks  the  way  of  the 
traveller.  The  bridging  of  these  streams  forms  one  of  the 
most  difficult  problems  connected  with  the  construction  of 
railroads.  Mountains  may  be  pierced  by  tunnels  that,  if 
well  constructed,  will  be  as  enduring  as  the  hills  them- 
selves ;  but  a  great  flood  tears  away,  as  though  they  were 
but  children's  toys,  costly  bridges  that  it  has  taken  months 
to  construct. 

On  the  lower  courses  of  the  rivers  artificial  embank- 
ments have  been  built  to  keep  back  the  water  from  rice- 
fields,  which  in  many  cases  are  even  lower  than  the  beds 
of  the  rivers.  When  heavy  rains  swell  the  streams  these 
banks  may  give  way,  so  that  the  water  pours  out  upon 
the  surrounding  country,  destroying  life  and  property. 
There  is  seldom  a  year  when  one  or  more  sections  of  the 
country  are  not  visited  by  disastrous  floods. 

3.  The  lakes,  which  are  said  to  be  more  than  two  hun- 
dred in  number,  are  for  the  most  part  small ;  but  many  of 
them,  standing  in  silent  grandeur  among  the  mountains — 
like  the  Hakone  Lake  near  the  celebrated  Hakone  Pass, 
west  of  Tokyo — or  nestling  in  luxuriant  beauty  amidst  the 


4  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

foliage  of  surrounding  hills — ^like  Chuzenji,  several  miles 
above  Nikko — are  extremely  pretty. 

The  largest  sheet  of  fresh  water  is  Lake  Biwa,  a  few 
miles  east  of  Kyoto.  It  is  fifty  miles  long,  and  twenty 
miles  wide  at  its  widest  point.  This  lake  is  also  subject 
to  floods  that  may  raise  the  water  nine  or  ten  feet,  sub- 
merging the  fields  and  villages  upon  its  shores.  The  out- 
let is  so  narrow  that  after  a  great  flood  the  lake  is  two 
or  three  months  in  regaining  its  ordinary  level. 

4.  The  coast-line  of  Japan  is  indented  by  many  bays 
that  afford  good  harbors ;  though  the  western  coast  of 
the  main  island  is  somewhat  deficient  in  havens  adapted 
to  large  vessels.  The  main  islands  are  separated  from 
one  another  by  narrow  straits.  The  Inland  Sea,  separat- 
ing Hondo  from  Shikoku  and  Kyushu,  furnishes  a  con- 
venient highway  for  commerce  and  is  justly  celebrated 
for  its  fine  scenery.  Indeed,  mountains,  rivers,  lakes,  and 
seas  unite  in  making  Japan  a  country  of  unusual  beauty. 

V.  Climate. — i.  Temperature. — The  climate  of  Japan 
is  mainly  governed  by  the  monsoons.  The  southwest 
monsoon,  which  blows  from  May  to  August  and  is  ac- 
companied by  heavy  rains,  produces  a  hot  and  damp  sum- 
mer; and  the  northeast  monsoon,  which  lasts  from 
October  to  February,  makes  the  winter  cold;  but  the 
extremes  are  not  so  great  as  are  experienced  on  the  neigh- 
boring continent.  In  winter,  changes  of  temperature  are 
great  and  sudden,  and  severe  night  frosts  are  common 
after  warm  and  sunny  days.  The  climate  varies  very 
considerably  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  owing  to 
the  extent  of  latitude  covered  and  the  influence  of  ocean 
currents.  At  Sapporo,  in  Yezo,  the  average  temperature 
for  the  whole  year  is  less  than  46°  F. ;  at  Tokyo  it  is 
57°  F. ;  and  at  Nagasaki  it  is  nearly  62°  F.  In  general, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  average  temperature  of  the  coasts 
bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  about  the  same  as  that 
of  places  in  the  same  latitude  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
America.  The  Kuroshio,  or  "  Black  Stream,"  exerts  an 
influence  much  like  that  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  The  western 
coast  of  Japan  is  considerably  colder  and  has  heavy  falls 
of  snow. 

2.  Americans  living  in  Japan  complain  much  of  damp- 
ness, which  makes  both  the  heat  and  the  cold  more  oppres- 


THE  LAND   OF  THE  RISING  SUN  $ 

sive.  Summer  seems  like  a  long  succession  of  "  dog- 
days,"  when  books  and  clothing  mildew,  tools  rust,  and 
the  least  exertion  induces  perspiration.  There  is  much 
rain  from  the  first  of  April  until  the  middle  of  September, 
though  sometimes  there  will  be  a  drought  in  July  or  Au- 
gust. June  is  almost  sure  to  bring  heavy  rains.  In  most 
parts  of  Japan  the  pleasantest  season  is  the  autumn,  the 
weather  from  the  first  of  October  to  the  middle  of  De- 
cember being  comparatively  tree  from  rain  and  wind. 

3.  It  is  said  that  the  proportion  of  ozone  in  the  air  is 
only  about  one-third  of  what  is  found  in  most  western 
lands.  It  may  be  for  this  reason,  in  part,  that  most  for- 
eigners find  the  climate  debilitating,  and  that  they  are 
able  to  accomplish  much  less  work,  especially  of  a  mental 
nature,  than  in  their  own  land.  The  young  missionary 
who  commences  to  study  the  language  is  inclined  to  make 
light  of  the  advice  given  by  his  elders  who  tell  him  to 
spend  what  seems  only  a  small  amount  of  time  in  study ; 
but  he  soon  finds  that  both  prudence  and  inclination  de- 
mand a  shortening  of  the  hours  devoted  to  intellectual 
activity. 

4.  High  zmnds  are  common  in  Japan.  The  most 
dreaded,  especially  by  those  who  are  on  the  sea,  is  that 
known  as  the  typhoon.  This  is  a  circular  storm  that 
starts  in  the  tropics  and  sweeps  up  along  the  coasts  of 
China,  the  Philippines,  and  Japan.  In  the  open  sea  the 
most  powerful  boats  are  hardly  able  to  cope  with  its  fury ; 
while  those  lying  in  exposed  harbors  may  be  thrown  far 
up  on  the  shore.  On  land  the  wind  overthrows  houses, 
fences,  and  trees,  while  villages  along  the  coast  are  likely 
to  be  inundated.  The  salt  spray  driven  by  the  wind  some- 
times withers  the  foliage  of  trees  growing  a  mile  from 
the  shore. 

5.  The  dampness  and  changeableness  of  the  climate 
cannot  fail  to  affect  the  health  of  residents.  Lung  dis- 
eases, dysentery,  and  rheumatism  abound.  The  climate 
seems  favorable  to  children  of  European  parentage,  and 
it  is  not  necessary,  as  in  India,  to  send  them  away  at  an 
early  age.  Most  adults  from  western  lands  find  the  cli- 
mate trying  to  their  health.  For  some  unknown  reason 
persons  having  a  tendency  to  nervous  diseases  are  almost 
sure  to  suflfer  in  Japan,  nervous  prostration  and  mental 
disorders  being  of  frequent  occurrence  among  foreigners. 


6  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

VI.  Seismic  Disturbances — ^Japan  is  a  land  subject 
to  terrible  disasters  of  various  kinds.  The  ruin  wrought 
by  floods,  volcanic  eruptions,  and  typhoons  has  already 
been  described.  Still  more  to  be  dreaded  are  the  earth- 
quakes, which  without  a  moment's  warning  destroy  whole 
cities  and  kill  thousands  of  people.  In  1855  Yedo  was 
thus  overthrown;  and  in  October,  1891,  the  earthquake 
that  destroyed  Ogaki,  Gifu,  and  many  villages,  killed  or 
wounded  22,000  persons,  besides  leaving  over  a  million 
homeless.  It  was  probably  a  seismic  movement  occurring 
in  mid-ocean  that  in  June,  1896,  set  in  motion  a  high  wave 
which  swept  along  the  northern  coast  of  Hondo,  killing 
30,000  people. 

VII.  Productions. — i.  Minerals. — ^Japan  has  consider- 
able mineral  wealth.  Gold  and  silver  are  found.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch  exported 
considerable  quantities  of  these  metals ;  and  much  was 
also  sent  out  of  the  country  when  trade  with  western  lands 
was  renewed  during  the  present  century.  Copper  and 
antimony  have  now  become  important  articles  of  export. 
Though  there  is  some  iron,  a  sufficient  quantity  for  mod- 
ern needs  has  not  yet  been  found  near  supplies  of  fuel 
for  smelting  it.  Upon  the  western  coast  of  Hondo  there 
is  petroleum;  but  not  much  of  it  is  refined,  as  the  mar- 
kets are  so  cheaply  supplied  with  oil  from  America  and 
Russia. 

2.  Agricultural  Wealth. — The  true  wealth  of  Japan 
consists  chiefly  in  its  agricultural  resources,  even  though, 
owing  to  the  mountainous  nature  of  the  country,  only 
about  one-eighth  of  the  land  is  under  cultivation.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and  in  most  places  yields  two  crops  a  year. 

The  culture  of  rice  has  led  to  a  careful  system  of  irriga- 
tion. So  soon  as  the  drainage  of  a  valley  produces  a  little 
runlet  of  water,  the  farmers  commence  to  build  up  walls 
of  stone  and  earth  so  as  to  make  small  plats  of  level 
ground  which  can  be  flowed  with  water.  One  terrace  fol- 
lows another  in  a  series  of  steps  that  lead  down  to  the 
plain.  If  the  land  continues  to  have  sufficient  slope,  the 
same  gradation  extends  to  the  seashore,  each  terrace  being 
a  few  inches  lower  than  the  preceding.  Artificial  canals 
bring  water  from  the  rivers  or  from  reservoirs  constructed 
among  the  hills.    On  some  of  the  plains  water  is  raised 


THE  LAND   OF  THE  RISING  SUN  7 

from  wells  by  means  of  well-sweeps  almost  exactly  like 
those  formerly  used  with  the  old  oaken  buckets  of  western 
lands. 

Through  the  winter  and  spring  the  ground  is  usually 
occupied  by  wheat,  barley,  rape,  beans,  radishes,  and  other 
such  crops.  When  these  have  ripened  they  are  quickly 
harvested,  the  ground  is  ploughed,  flowed  over  with  wa- 
ter, and  then  harrowed  so  as  to  convert  the  soil  into  a 
mass  of  muddy  ooze  intended  for  rice  culture.  Compa- 
nies of  men  and  women  wade  through  the  fields,  trans- 
planting the  young  rice-plants  which  have  been  growing 
in  little  plots  of  ground  where  the  grain  was  thickly  sown 
several  weeks  before.  The  plains  that  were  recently 
brown  with  ripening  wheat  now  form  a  vast  shallow  lake 
divided  by  narrow  embankments  that  separate  one  field 
from  another,  the  tender  plants  of  transplanted  rice  giving 
a  slightly  greenish  tint  to  the  landscape.  During  the  sum- 
mer and  until  the  rice  is  nearly  ripe  the  fields  must  be 
supplied  with  water. 

In  seasons  of  drought  the  peasants  of  different  villages 
often  have  bitter  quarrels  and  sometimes  pitched  battles 
in  trying  to  decide  who  has  the  best  right  to  draw  supplies 
of  water  from  rivers  and  reservoirs.  Recourse  is  often 
had  to  prayers  and  incantations  in  order  to  produce  rain. 
The  stone  images  of  Buddhist  saints  placed  beside  the 
road  are  sometimes  tied  up  with  straw-rope,  the  promise 
being  made  that  they  shall  be  released  so  soon  as  they 
send  refreshing  showers.  Sometimes  the  farmers  throw 
a  stone  image  into  a  pond,  where  it  must  lie  until  ready 
to  grant  the  request  for  rain,  when  it  is  dragged  forth, 
replaced  upon  its  pedestal,  and  worshipped  as  before. 

Millet,  tobacco,  radishes,  melons,  sweet  potatoes,  tur- 
nips, onions,  and  other  vegetables  are  extensively  culti- 
vated. 

Silk  and  tea  are  the  chief  articles  of  export  to  western 
lands.  The  former  is  now  produced  in  most  sections  of 
the  country  that  are  not  too  cold  for  the  industry.  The 
care  of  the  worms,  the  reeling  of  the  thread,  and  the 
weaving  of  fabrics  furnish  employment  for  many  men, 
women,  and  children.  The  annual  export  of  silk  amounts 
to  about  $30,000,000.  Forty  million  pounds  of  tea  are 
exported,  most  of  it  being  sent  to  America,  as  Japanese 
tea  has  never  gained  popularity  in  Europe. 


8  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

The  principal  fruits  of  Japan  are  excellent  oranges, 
apricots,  loquats,  persimmons,  figs,  and  plums;  passable 
grapes,  poor  peaches,  and  a  coarse  pear  that  is  more  es- 
teemed by  Japanese  than  by  foreigners.  Good  apples  are 
produced  in  the  north. 

3.  Trees  and  Flowers, — The  country  is  well  supplied 
with  timber.  Pines,  firs,  and  giant  cryptomerias  cover 
many  of  the  mountains  with  their  evergreen  foliage,  or 
shade  the  highways  along  which  they  have  been  planted. 
Oak  and  other  hard-wood  trees  are  valuable  for  building ; 
the  trees  that  furnish  camphor  and  vegetable  wax  add 
much  to  the  national  wealth;  while  the  delicate  foliage 
of  the  maple,  green  in  summer  and  brilliantly  tinted  in 
autumn,  adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  landscape. 

The  wild  camellia  is  a  tall  tree  that  in  spring  bears  a  pro- 
fusion of  large,  single  flowers.  More  highly  appreciated 
by  the  Japanese  are  the  cherry-trees  that  in  spring  beau- 
tify the  mountains  and  parks  with  their  pure  blossoms. 
"  Among  flowers,  the  cherry ;  among  men,  the  warrior," 
is  an  old  saying  which  shows  what  the  Japanese  most 
esteemed  in  blossoms  and  in  men.  Dwarf  varieties  of  the 
cherry  bear  large  flowers  of  various  hues ;  but  the  fruit 
of  these,  as  of  the  wild  trees,  is  worthless.  The  Japanese 
preserve  cherry  blossoms  in  salt;  and  cherry-tea,  made 
by  placing  one  or  two  of  these  in  a  tea-cup  of  warm  water, 
is  sometimes  presented  to  an  honored  guest.  The  plum 
blossom  is  much  prized  for  its  simple  beauty,  its  perfume, 
and  because  it  blooms  so  early  while  the  branches  are  still 
covered  with  snow.  The  moats  of  old  castles  are  often 
used  for  the  cultivation  of  the  lotus,  whose  roots  and 
seeds  are  used  for  food,  and  whose  pink  or  white  blossoms 
delight  the  eye.  The  use  of  the  flower  in  Buddhistic  sym- 
bolism comes  from  the  fact  that  it  rises  in  such  sweet 
purity  from  the  foul  mud  that  surrounds  it.  The  chrys- 
anthemum, wistaria,  azalea,  peony,  and  iris  are  some  of 
the  other  plants  whose  blossoms  are  most  prized. 

In  speaking  of  plants  it  will  not  do  to  omit  the  bamboo, 
though  there  may  be  some  hesitation  in  knowing  where 
it  should  be  classed.  It  might  be  reckoned  among  the 
edible  vegetables,  since  the  young  shoots  are  an  impor- 
tant article  of  food;  it  might  be  included  among  useful 
timbers,  since  it  is  so  much  used  in  building  and  for 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  RISING  SUN  9 

making  various  utensils ;  but  in  reality  it  is  a  grass.  The 
shoot,  as  it  springs  from  the  ground,  has  nearly  the  diam- 
eter of  the  full-grown  plant;  pushing  rapidly  through 
the  air,  it  attains  its  full  height  in  a  few  weeks ;  and, 
though  its  fibres  grow  more  firm,  there  is  afterward  no 
perceptible  increase  in  size. 

4.  Animals. — The  deer,  bear,  wild  boar,  monkey,  hare, 
badger,  and  fox  are  found  in  Japan.  Until  recent  years, 
deer  were  so  plentiful  in  even  the  thickly  populated  prov- 
inces that  long  earthen  walls,  which  may  still  be  seen, 
were  built  on  the  edges  of  forests  in  order  to  keep  them 
out  of  the  fields. 

The  fox  is  regarded  with  superstitious  fear;  partly  be- 
cause it  is  considered  the  messenger  of  one  of  the  gods, 
and  still  more  because  it  is  supposed  to  bewitch  people. 
Many  persons  are  thought  to  be  victims  of  fox-possession. 
They  bark  like  a  fox,  jump  about,  and  move  their  bodies 
in  a  curious  way.  The  phenomenon  is  evidently  a  form 
of  nervous  disease  whose  manifestations  are  governed  by 
the  superstitions  prevailing  among  the  people.  Certain 
temples  are  frequented  by  possessed  persons  who  repeat 
Buddhist  formulas  and  perform  various  rites  in  the  hope 
of  driving  the  fox  from  them.  It  is  said  that  there  are 
no  foxes  in  Shikoku,  and  that  therefore  no  cases  of  fox- 
possession  occur  in  that  island.  Badger-possession,  how- 
ever, takes  its  place. 

Domestic  animals  include  horses,  oxen,  dogs,  and  cats. 
Horses  are  used  chiefly  as  pack-animals.  In  Yezo  and  in 
some  mountainous  regions  they  are  used  for  riding.  In 
ancient  as  in  modern  times  they  were  employed  for  mili- 
tary purposes.  Carriages  drawn  by  horses  are  not  com- 
mon. Oxen  are  used  for  ploughing  and  other  work  upon 
the  farm.  Until  recently,  milk  has  not  been  an  article  of 
diet ;  and  it  is  still  regarded  as  a  food  for  invalids  rather 
than  for  those  in  health.  The  use  of  meat,  though  for- 
merly prevented  by  Buddhistic  ideas,  is  becoming  com- 
mon. It  is  said  that  in  old  times  venison  and  other  meat 
was  sometimes  sold  under  the  name  of  "  mountain  whale," 
since  only  the  strictest  Buddhists  refused  to  eat  fish,  and 
the  whale  was  considered  a  fish. 

5.  Birds. — Among  the  birds  of  Japan  are  herons, 
cranes,    storks,    ducks,    geese,    bitterns,    hawks,    crows, 


10  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

pheasants,  and  pigeons,  besides  innumerable  sparrows 
and  a  variety  of  other  small  birds.  It  is  often  said  that 
the  birds  of  Japan  have  no  song;  but  this  is  not  quite 
true.  Though  the  cawing  of  the  crows  and  the  shrieks 
of  the  bitterns  cannot  be  called  musical,  the  same  can 
hardly  be  said  of  the  cooing  of  the  wood-pigeons,  the 
plaintive  notes  of  the  nightingale,  and  the  cheerful  song 
of  the  sky-lark. 

6.  Marine  Products. — The  seas  surrounding  Japan  fur- 
nish large  quantities  of  excellent  fish.  Seals  are  taken 
among  the  northern  islands.  In  the  capture  of  whales 
nets  made  of  coarse  rope  are  used.  After  the  fishermen 
have  managed  to  entangle  the  whale  in  them  so  that  it 
cannot  shake  them  oflF,  they  act  as  a  drag  upon  its  move- 
ments, thus  enabling  the  men  to  despatch  it  with  their 
harpoons.  Shell-fish  of  various  kinds  are  much  used  for 
food.  Large  quantities  of  seaweed  are  dried,  to  be  eaten 
by  the  Japanese  or  exported  to  China. 

7.  Insects. — Insects,  with  the  exception  of  those  pro- 
ducing silk,  are  hardly  to  be  considered  among  the  useful 
products  of  Japan,  unless  on  the  principle  that  all  created 
things  must  serve  some  useful  purpose.  Some  of  them, 
indeed,  are  a  delight  to  the  eye.  Moths,  butterflies,  and 
dragon-flies  are  numerous  and  beautiful.  In  the  evening 
the  lowlands  sparkle  with  flashing  fire-flies.  The  Jap- 
anese capture  these,  sometimes  carrying  them  about  in 
bags  made  of  thin  paper  through  which  their  rays  shine, 
sometimes  enclosing  hundreds  in  a  cage  to  beautify  a 
garden  or  a  room. 

Other  insects,  however,  not  only  fail  to  furnish  enjoy- 
ment, but  are  a  source  of  discomfort.  The  traveller  in 
Yezo  is  tormented  by  the  sharp  bites  of  a  large  gad-fly, 
against  whose  attacks  ordinary  clothing  oflFers  slight  pro- 
tection. Elsewhere  a  tiny  gnat  infests  wooded  districts. 
Clouds  of  mosquitoes  make  the  use  of  nets  a  necessity  at 
night ;  but  no  nets  are  a  protection  against  the  ubiquitous 
flea,  which  keeps  nervous  people  awake  at  night,  and  by 
day  is  a  great  annoyance,  especially  if  its  victim  is  at  a 
meeting  where  he  must  keep  quiet,  or  in  company  where 
propriety  prevents  any  attempt  to  get  rid  of  the  crawling, 
jumping,  biting  torment. 

VIII.    Population — In  1895  Japan — exclusive  of  For- 


THE  LAND   OF  THE  RISING  SUN  \\ 

mosa — had  42,270,620  people.  Of  these,  3,518  were  no- 
bles, 1,617,686  belonged  to  the  gentry — formerly  the 
samurai,  or  military  class — and  the  remainder  to  the  com- 
mon people. 

IX.  Important  Cities. — i.  Kyoto ,  the  once  sacred  cap- 
ital, where  the  Emperors  resided  for  upward  of  a  thou- 
sand years — from  a.d.  794  to  1868 — is  by  far  the  most 
interesting  city  of  Japan.  It  is  sometimes  called  Saikyo, 
"  Western  Capital,"  in  contradistinction  to  Tokyo,  the 
"  Eastern  Capital."  In  early  European  works  on  Japan 
it  is  often  called  Miaco  (Miyako),  which  is  a  Japanese 
word  denoting  the  capital  city.  Except  on  the  south,  the 
plain  in  which  it  stands  is  encircled  by  mountains.  On 
its  eastern  side — parallel  to  the  River  Kamo,  which  flows 
through  and  divides  the  city — a  range  of  hills  several 
hundred  feet  high  adds  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  situa- 
tion. The  Kamo  is  spanned  by  several  long  bridges.  It 
is,  however,  little  more  than  a  dry,  shingly  bed,  except 
when  swollen  by  heavy  rains.  The  river-bed  is  a  marked 
feature  of  the  city.  It  is  utilized  for  bleaching  cloth,  long 
strips  of  which  may  be  seen  spread  on  it  any  fine  day. 
In  the  summer  evenings  some  portions  of  it  are  alive  with' 
multitudes  of  citizens,  their  families  and  friends,  who 
occupy  booths  and  "  cooling  stages,"  sipping  tea  or  sake, 
eating  fruit  and  sweetmeats,  smoking,  chatting,  and  oth- 
erwise amusing  themselves.  The  city  is  well  built,  and 
the  streets  are  clean. 

The  history  of  Japan  for  a  thousand  years  centres  about 
Kyoto;  but  its  political  importance  was  lost  when  the 
capital  was  removed,  in  1868,  to  Tokyo.  Most  of  the 
residences  formerly  occupied  by  nobles  and  court  officers 
were  demolished.  The  Imperial  Palace,  however,  still 
remains,  and  is  occupied  by  the  Emperor  when  he  visits 
the  city.  In  recent  years  the  establishment  of  several 
manufactories,  and  an  increased  demand  for  the  silks, 
embroideries,  porcelain,  and  other  artistic  productions  for 
which  the  city  is  famous  have  helped  to  restore  its  pros- 
perity. The  construction  of  a  canal  which  has  been 
brought  by  tunnels  through  the  mountains  from  Lake 
Biwa,  about  seven  miles  distant,  has  facilitated  traffic  with 
the  populous  region  lying  about  the  lake,  and  also  fur- 
nished water-power,  which,  in  the  form  of  electricity,  is 


|2  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

distributed  through  the  city.  The  population,  is  now 
about  330,000.  The  city  has  several  educational  institu- 
tions, among  them  being  the  new  University,  lately  estab- 
lished by  the  government,  and  the  Doshisha  Schools 
founded  by  Dr.  Joseph  Neesima  and  the  American  Board. 

Kyoto  has  for  centuries  been  the  centre  of  the  nation's 
religious  life.  Both  Buddhist  and  Shinto  temples  are  nu- 
merous. The  magnificent  new  temple  of  the  Shin  sect 
of  Buddhists  is  a  conspicuous  object  in  the  city.  In  the 
suburbs  and  all  along  the  hills  which  surround  Kyoto  are 
many  temples.  Their  grounds,  especially  those  which  in- 
clude groves  on  the  hillsides,  are  both  extensive  and  beau- 
tiful. Some  are  like  parks,  some  are  laid  out  as  gardens 
— admirable  specimens  of  Japanese  landscape  gardening 
— and  in  all  of  them  the  people,  who  are  great  lovers  of 
nature,  find  abundant  pleasure  and  delight. 

2.  Tokyo. — This  city,  formerly  called  Yedo,  is  compara- 
tively modern.  Until  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century  it  was  a  place  of  no  importance.  Then  it  was 
that  leyasu,  who  had  just  become  the  Shogun  or  military 
governor  of  Japan,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  city's  great- 
ness by  building  his  castle  and  establishing  his  govern- 
ment there.  After  the  Shogunate  was  abolished  by  the 
Restoration  of  1868,  the  name  of  Yedo  was  changed  to 
Tokyo,  and  it  became  the  seat  of  the  Imperial  govern- 
ment.   It  has  now  a  population  of  1,269,000. 

The  city  stands  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Yedo  and  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Sumida  River.  Originally  built  as  a 
military  stronghold,  its  principal  feature  was  the  Sho- 
gun's  castle,  whose  walls  and  moats  still  remain,  while  its 
grounds  are  occupied  by  the  new  Imperial  Palace,  parks, 
and  public  buildings.  The  moats  and  other  canals  are 
connected  and  communicate  either  with  the  Sumida  River 
or  the  bay.  It  is  over  one  of  these  canals,  which  crosses 
the  main  street  of  the  city,  that  the  famous  Bridge  of 
Japan — Nihon  Bashi — is  built,  from  which  all  distances 
in  the  empire  are  measured.  The  bridge,  ''  of  cedarwood, 
with  highly  ornamental  balustrades,"  or,  as  described 
by  another,  the  '*  humpbacked  structure,  a  crazy  mass  of 
old  firewood,"  of  former  days,  has  given  place  to  a  stone 
bridge,  almost  level,  and  affording  passage  for  a  contin- 
iious  stream  of  tram-cars,  wagonettes,  and  jinrikisha, 


THE  LAND   OF  THE  RISING  SUN  1 3 

which  were  unknown  in  old  Yedo.  The  city  is  every 
year  becoming  more  Europeanized.  Not  only  are  gov- 
ernment offices,  schools,  military  barracks,  and  other  pub- 
lic buildings  erected  in  European  style,  but  the  same  is 
increasingly  true  of  business  establishments  and  the  dwell- 
ings of  wealthy  people. 

Tokyo  is  the  great  educational  centre  of  Japan,  having 
the  Imperial  University,  normal,  commercial,  and  mili- 
tary schools,  besides  a  large  number  of  private  institu- 
tions, including  many  that  have  been  established  by  mis- 
sionaries. 

3.  Yokohama. — This  city  is  situated  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  Bay  of  Yedo,  eighteen  miles  from  Tokyo. 
Forty  years  ago  it  was  a  small  fishing  village  on  the  edge 
of  a  swamp.  It  is  now  a  large  and  flourishing  town  of 
160,000  inhabitants.  The  treaties  with  western  nations 
provided  for  the  opening  of  Kanagawa,  and  the  foreign 
ministers  made  loud  complaints  when  the  Japanese  Gov- 
ernment set  apart  this  village  as  the  place  for  foreign 
residence.  Business  men,  however,  hastened  to  take  the 
land  placed  at  their  disposal,  and  an  increasing  commerce 
has  built  up  this  large  city. 

The  European  commercial  quarter  is  substantially  built, 
and  the  influence  of  its  buildings  is  seen  in  those  that  have 
in  recent  years  been  erected  by  Japanese  merchants.  Most 
of  the  foreigners  reside  on  the  Bluflf,  a  range  of  low  hills 
extending  from  the  shore  of  the  bay  inland,  on  which 
there  are  numerous  pleasantly  situated  villas,  with  gar- 
dens well  screened  from  the  road  by  evergreen  hedges 
and  shrubbery.  There  is  a  small  colony  of  Chinese  resi- 
dents in  Yokohama,  many  of  whom  are  merchants,  brok- 
ers, money-changers,  and  clerks ;  others  being  carpenters, 
painters,  tailors,  shoemakers,  and  domestic  servants  in 
European  houses. 

4.  Osaka. — This  is  the  second  largest  city  in  Japan, 
and  stands  in  the  delta  of  the  Yodo  River,  about  two 
miles  from  the  sea  and  thirty  from  Kyoto.  The  river  is 
formed  in  the  plain  south  of  Kyoto,  by  the  union  of  the 
waters  of  its  four  principal  affiuents — one  issuing  from 
Lake  Biwa,  another  flowing  across  the  Kyoto  plain  to 
the  west  of  the  city,  another  passing  through  the  city 
itself,  and  the  fourth  draining  the  country  to  the  south 


14  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

and  southeast — and  thence  flows  toward  the  Gulf  of 
Osaka,  into  which  it  falls  by  several  channels.  Having 
lost  a  portion  of  its  water  above  Osaka,  it  enters  the  city 
at  its  northeastern  extremity  and  is  thence  divided.  Its 
several  streams,  together  with  the  numerous  canals  cut 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  completely  intersect  the  city, 
and  Osaka  has  somewhat  extravagantly  been  called  the 
"  Venice  of  Japan."  These  canals  are  crossed  by  over 
eleven  hundred  bridges.  Although  a  bar  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  prevents  the  entrance  of  large  vessels,  junks  and 
small  steamers  ascend  to  the  lower  part  of  the  city,  while 
the  canals  are  crowded  with  cargo  boats  conveying  goods 
to  and  from  the  large  fireproof  storehouses  along  the 
banks.  There  are  plans  for  the  construction  of  an  arti- 
ficial harbor. 

Osaka,  like  several  other  Japanese  cities,  is  now  in  the 
midst  of  an  industrial  and  social  revolution  that  is  the  out- 
growth of  the  introduction  of  the  modern  manufacturing 
system.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  belt  of  factories 
which  turn  out  a  large  variety  of  goods  for  the  home 
trade  and  for  export  to  China,  Korea,  and  other  countries. 
Some  of  the  factories  are  little  more  than  rough  sheds,  yet 
even  in  these  an  astonishing  amount  of  work  is  accom- 
plished. On  the  other  hand,  the  buildings  and  equip- 
ments of  some  of  the  large  mills  would  compare  favorably 
with  those  of  manufacturing  cities  in  America.  These 
factories  attract  large  numbers  of  operatives  from  the 
country  districts,  and  are  bringing  about  some  of  the 
social  changes  that  have  attended  the  development  of 
manufactures  in  the  West.  The  population  of  the  city 
is  nearly  half  a  million ;  but  in  addition  to  those  who  are 
registered  as  permanent  residents,  the  operatives  in  the 
factories  and  the  multitudes  of  strangers  coming  to  the 
city  for  business  or  pleasure  largely  increase  the  number 
of  those  who  at  any  one  time  are  within  its  limits ;  while 
thousands  more  dwell  in  the  populous  suburbs,  which  are 
separated  by  no  visible  line  of  demarcation  from  what  is 
politically  known  as  the  city  of  Osaka. 

5.  Kobe. — This  city,  about  twenty  miles  distant  from 
Osaka,  has  become  nearly  as  important  a  port  as  Yoko- 
hama. In  official  circles  it  is  often  called  Hiogo,  that 
being  the  name  of  the  city  that  by  treaties  was  thrown 


THE  LAND   OF  THE  RISING  SUN  1 5 

open  to  foreign  residence.  It  was  found  more  convenient 
to  have  the  settlement  at  the  Httle  fishing  village  of  Kobe ; 
and  through  the  growth  of  foreign  trade  this  has  increased 
in  importance  until  it  has  absorbed  the  older  city.  In 
1895  it  contained  a  population  of  161,000.  It  has  an  ex- 
cellent harbor,  and  the  ground  rises  gradually  for  half 
a  mile  to  the  foot  of  steep  mountains.  The  town  presents 
a  very  attractive  appearance  as  seen  from  vessels  entering 
the  harbor. 

6.  Nagasaki. — This  city  is  in  the  island  of  Kyushu. 
It  stands  near  the  head  of  a  lovely  bay,  which,  with  its 
rocky  coasts  and  surrounding  hills,  makes  an  attractive 
scene,  though  the  town  itself  is  not  so  pleasant  as  most 
of  the  other  treaty  ports.  The  region  is  historically  in- 
teresting because  of  its  connection  with  the  persecution 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Christians  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, and  also  as  having  been  the  place  where  the  Dutch 
were  allowed  to  have  a  trading  settlement  which  for  two 
hundred  and  thirty  years  after  the  expulsion  of  foreigners 
in  1624  was  the  only  point  of  contact  between  Japan  and 
the  western  world. 

7.  Hakodate. — This  port,  in  the  southern  part  of  Yezo, 
is  an  important  commercial  centre  and  is  in  direct  steam 
communication  with  Yokohama  and  other  ports.  The 
town  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  and  the 
shore  of  a  land-locked  bay,  which  forms  a  deep,  commo- 
dious, and  safe  harbor. 

8.  Niigata. — This  city  is  on  the  west  coast  of  Hondo, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Shinano-gawa,  the  largest  river  in 
Japan.  It  is  the  capital  of  one  of  the  richest  provinces 
in  the  empire,  but  suffers  from  lack  of  a  good  harbor. 
The  important  island  of  Sado,  noted  for  its  gold  mines, 
is  near  Niigata. 

With  the  exception  of  Kyoto,  the  cities  thus  far  men- 
tioned are  the  so-called  "  open  ports/'  or  places  where 
foreigners  belonging  to  countries  having  treaties  with 
Japan  have  been  permitted  to  reside.  Beyond  certain  spec- 
ified limits  in  the  vicinity  of  these  ports,  they  have  not 
been  allowed  to  travel,  except  as  they  have  obtained  special 
permission  from  the  Japanese  Government;  and  they 
could  not  reside  elsewhere  unless  they  were  employed 
by  Japanese  under  contracts  approved  by  the  government. 


l6  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

These  restrictions,  which  have  at  times  been  a  great  ob- 
stacle to  travel  and  to  missionary  work,  are  nearly  at  an 
end,  as  new  treaties  permitting  foreigners  to  travel  and 
reside  in  any  part  of  the  country  become  effective  in  July, 
1899. 

9.  Other  Cities, — Sapporo,  the  capital  of  Yezo,  is  a 
place  of  growing  importance.  It  has  an  agricultural  col- 
lege whose  graduates  are  doing  much  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  island,  which  is  being  colonized  by  immigrants 
from  the  southern  islands. 

Sendai  is  the  commercial,  military,  educational,  and  re- 
ligious centre  for  a  large  part  of  northeastern  Hondo. 

Nikko  is  much  visited  by  tourists  because  of  its  fine 
scenery  and  the  temples  connected  with  the  burial  places 
of  the  Sbooruns  leyasu  and  lemitsu.  A  Japanese  proverb 
runs,  "  Never  say  kekko  (magnificent)  until  you  have 
seen  Nikko." 

Nagoya,  the  fourth  largest  city  of  Japan,  is  an  impor- 
tant business  and  military  centre.  It  is  also  noted  for  its 
porcelain  factories  and  for  a  fine  castle. 

In  former  times  the  cities  where  the  daimyos,  or  feudal 
lords,  resided  and  had  their  castles  were  the  centres  of 
the  regions  in  which  they  were  situated.  Some  of  them 
have  fallen  into  decay ;  but  others  of  them,  owing  to  their 
favorable  location,  or  to  the  enterprise  of  the  people  in 
introducing  manufactures,  have  retained  their  importance. 
For  the  most  part,  it  is  these  "  castle-towns "  that  have 
presented  the  best  openings  for  Christian  work  and  have 
been  chosen  by  missionaries  for  residence. 

X.  Means  of  Communication. — i.  ^f^am^r^  from  San 
Francisco,  Tacoma,  Seattle,  and  Vancouver  sail  regularly 
to  Yokohama,  most  of  them  going  on  from  that  port  to 
Kobe,  Nagasaki,  and  China.  The  English,  German, 
French,  Austrian,  and  Japanese  lines  to  Europe  touch  at 
several  Asiatic  ports  on  the  way.  A  large  number  of 
steamers  connect  the  important  parts  of  Japan.  Many  of 
these  boats  are  now  built  by  the  Japanese  themselves. 

Some  sailing  vessels,  especially  those  engaged  in  carry- 
ing oil,  still  ply  between  America  and  Japan.  Much  of  the' 
trade  between  the  islands  is  carried  on  by  the  old-fash- 
ioned junks,  though  these  are  fast  giving  place  to  vessels 
of  modern  style. 


THE  LAND   OF  THE  RISING  SUN  tf 

Small,  flat-bottomed  boats  carry  cargoes  up  and  down 
the  larger  rivers.  In  descending  streams,  the  traveller 
often  finds  that  these  furnish  him  a  pleasant  means  of 
conveyance.  They  take  him  through  picturesque  scenery, 
and  the  shooting  of  rapids  is  exciting. 

2.  The  country  is  being  rapidly  supplied  with  railroads. 
The  first  lines  were  built  by  the  government,  and  the  ques- 
tion whether  it  shall  purchase  those  afterward  constructed 
by  private  companies  is  much  discussed.  The  railways 
are  narrow-gauge.  Those  in  Yezo  have  the  American 
style  of  cars;  elsewhere  the  English  coaches  are  used. 
Fares  for  the  three  classes  of  the  latter  are  equivalent,  in 
American  money,  to  about  i>^,  i,  and  ^  cent  a  mile. 
Few  of  the  trains  travel  more  than  twenty  miles  an 
hour.  A  few  short  lines  of  electric  roads  have  been 
constructed,  and  the  abundance  of  water-power  available 
for  the  production  of  electricity  favors  an  increased  use 
of  such  roads. 

3.  In  old  times  the  chief  method  of  travel  was  by  the 
kago,  a  sort  of  chair  carried  on  the  shoulders  of  men.  It 
is  still  used  in  mountainous  districts.  Foreigners,  not 
being  made  on  the  jack-knife  plan,  find  it  tiresome  to  ride 
doubled  up  in  the  fashion  that  these  vehicles  require. 
Many  people  think  that  the  only  comfortable  way  to  ride 
in  them  is  to  get  out  and  walk  behind.  ' 

In  most  places  they  have  been  replaced  by  the  jinrikisha. 
An  American  missionary,  desiring  some  conveyance  for 
his  invalid  wife,  showed  the  picture  of  a  baby  carriage  to 
a  Japanese  carpenter  and  had  him  make  something  simi- 
lar. The  new  vehicle  was  found  so  convenient  that  the 
Japanese  copied  it,  and  now  the  jinrikisha  (or  "  man- 
power carriage,"  as  the  name  signifies)  is  found  in  most 
parts  of  the  country  and  has  been  introduced  into  China 
and  India.  The  main  roads  of  Japan  are  good,  and  in 
fair  weather  the  traveller  may  expect  to  average  between 
five  and  six  miles  an  hour,  or  somewhat  more,  if  he  isi 
going  but  a  short  distance.  The  same  man  will  sometimes 
carry  a  passenger  over  fifty  miles  in  a  day.  In  Yezo  and 
some  other  places  carts  and  very  uncomfortable  coaches 
are  the  vehicles  in  use. 

4.  Japan  has  a  good  system  of  posts.  Carriers  deliver 
letters  not  only  in  large  towns,  but  also  in  small  villages. 


iS  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

There  are  very  few  places  that  do  not  have  at  least  one 
mail  a  day.  There  is  a  parcel-post.  A  postal  savings- 
bank  pays  a  good  rate  of  interest.  Telegraphs  owned  by 
the  government  connect  all  the  large  towns,  and  there  is 
the  commencement  of  a  system  of  telephones. 


n 

The  People  of  Japan 

1.  Origin  of  the  Japanese.— i.  The  difference  be- 
tween two  types  found  among  the  Japanese  people  has 
been  described  by  Dr.  Griffis  as  follows :  "  Among  the 
upper  classes,  the  fine,  long,  oval  face,  with  prominent, 
well-chiselled  features,  deep-sunken  eye-sockets,  oblique 
eyes,  long,  drooping  eyelids,  elevated  and  arched  eye- 
brows, high  and  narrow  forehead,  rounded  nose,  bud- 
like mouth,  pointed  chin,  small  hands  ana  feet,  contrast 
strikingly  with  the  round,  flattened  face,  less  oblique  eyes 
almost  level  with  the  face,  and  straight  noses,  expanded 
and  upturned  at  the  roots.  The  former  type  prevails 
among  the  higher  classes — the  nobility  and  gentry;  the 
latter  among  the  agricultural  and  laboring  classes." 

2.  These  types  probably  represent  two  streams  of  im- 
migration. People  from  Northern  Asia  may  have  crossed 
over  from  Korea  or  have  entered  by  way  of  Saghalien, 
which  is  separated  from  Siberia  by  a  channel  only  five 
miles  wide  that  is  sometimes  left  dry  by  the  wind  and 
is  frozen  over  in  winter.  Some  students  of  the  problem' 
suppose  that  Southern  Japan  was  peopled  by  persons  who 
came  from  the  Malay  Archipelago.  They  point  to  the 
fact  that  the  Black  Stream  sometimes  brings  to  Japan 
shipwrecked  sailors  who  have  drifted  in  their  boats  from 
the  south.  It  is  thought  that  these  southern  immigrants 
conquered  those  who  had  entered  from  the  north,  and 
that  in  the  course  of  time  the  races  blended  so  as  to  form 
the  Japanese  people.  Other  writers  oppose  the  theory 
of  a  Malayan  immigration.  While  recognizing  that  there 
were  two  races,  they  claim  that  both  were  Mongolian  and 
probably  came  by  way  of  Korea  or  China. 

II.  The  Ainu. — Whatever  may  be  the  truth  concern- 
ing these  two  sets  of  immigrants,  they  probably  found  the 

19 


20  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

islands  already  occupied  by  other  people  whose  origin  is 
unknown.  These  were  the  Ainu,  or  Aino,  whom  the  new- 
comers gradually  forced  back  into  Yezo,  where  they  long 
maintained  independence  and  their  purity  of  race.  A 
remnant  numbering  about  17,000  still  survives,  but  they 
are  subject  to  the  Japanese.  The  Ainu  "  are  the  hairiest 
race  in  the  whole  world,  their  luxuriantly  thick  black 
beards  and  hairy  limbs  giving  them  an  appearance  which 
contrasts  strangely  with  the  smoothness  of  their  Japanese 
lords  and  masters.  They  are  of  a  sturdy  build,  and  dis- 
tinguished by  a  flattening  of  certain  bones  of  the  arm  and 
leg — the  tibia  and  humerus — which  has  been  observed  no- 
where else  except  in  the  remains  of  some  of  the  cave-men 
of  Europe.  The  women  tattoo  mustaches  on  their  upper 
lips  and  geometrical  patterns  on  their  hands.  Both  sexes 
are  of  a  mild  and  amiable  disposition,  but  are  terribly 
addicted  to  drunkenness.  They  are  filthily  dirty,  the  prac- 
tice of  bathing  being  altogether  unknown.  .  .  .  Their 
religion  is  a  simple  nature-worship.  The  sun,  wind,  ocean, 
bear,  etc.,  are  deified  .  .  .  and  whittled  sticks  are 
set  up  in  their  honor.  The  bear,  though  worshipped,  is 
also  sacrificed  and  eaten  with  solemnities  that  form  the 
most  original  and  picturesque  features  of  Ainu  life." 
(Chamberlain,  "  Thing^s  Japanese.") 

III.  Possible  Relation  between  the  Japanese  and  the 
American  Indians. — The  Japanese  are  thought  by  some 
to  have  been  the  progenitors  of  the  North  American  In- 
dians and  the  Mexicans.  In  some  respects  the  physical 
characteristics  are  similar,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the 
Black  Stream  might  have  borne  shipwrecked  people  across 
the  Pacific.  Indeed,  it  is  said  that  between  1782  and  1876, 
forty-seven  Japanese  junks  are  known  to  have  been  cast 
upon  the  American  coast. 

IV.  Physical  Characteristics  of  the  Japanese.  — 
The  average  height  of  Japanese  men  is  about  the  same  as 
that  of  European  women.  The  low  stature  is  largely  due 
to  shortness  of  the  lower  limbs,  and,  when  seated,  they 
do  not  seem  so  diminutive  as  when  standing.  They  are 
of  light  weight.  With  the  exception  of  the  professional 
wrestlers,  who  look  like  mountains  of  fat,  very  few  portly 
persons  are  to  be  seen.  The  upper  and  middle  classes 
appear  to  be  physically  weak;    but  the  peasantry  have 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  JAPAN  21 

great  powers  of  endurance,  even  the  women  carrying 
heavy  burdens  upon  their  heads. 

V.  Mental  Characteristics — i.  The  Japanese  are 
keenly  intelligent.  Most  of  the  men  and  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  women  are  able  to  read  books  written  in 
a  simple  style.  Even  the  peasants  are  interested  to  know 
what  is  going  on  in  the  world,  their  questions  and  re- 
marks showing  much  shrewdness  and  quickness  of  per- 
ception. 

2.  The  people  are  cheerful  and  good-natured.  They  take 
life  in  a  light-hearted  way.  With  a  smile,  or  sometimes 
with  a  laugh,  the  Japanese  will  tell  of  some  terrible  dis- 
aster or  bereavement;  yet  one  who  understands  the  peo- 
ple knows  that  a  heavy  heart  often  lies  beneath  the  cheer- 
ful exterior,  and  that  a  sympathetic  word  may  lead,  to 
a  flood  of  tears.  It  is  often  hard  to  tell  whether  the  laugh 
that  accompanies  the  narration  of  bad  news  comes  from 
nervousness  or  from  the  person's  feeling  that  he  ought 
not  to  let  his  own  sorrow  annoy  another. 

3.  It  is  often  said  that  the  Japanese  are  imitative,  but 
do  not  have  inventive  power.  The  correctness  of  this  as- 
sertion may  be  doubted.  It  is  true  that  Japan  in  former 
times  copied  what  it  received  from  China,  and  more  re- 
cently it  has  adopted  or  imitated  what  has  come  from  the 
West.  Yet  the  copying  has  not  been  servile.  If  an  object 
is  placed  before  a  Chinaman  and  a  Japanese  with  direc- 
tions to  make  something  like  it,  the  former  will  produce 
what  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  the  model.  The 
Japanese,  on  the  other  hand,  will  introduce  some  ideas  of 
his  own.  If  he  understands  the  use  of  the  article,  the 
change  will  probably  be  an  improvement.  Where  there 
is  a  chance  for  variation  he  does  not  like  to  make  two 
things  alike.  Here  we  see  what  is  at  least  allied  to  a 
capacity  for  invention.  Tell  a  country  blacksmith  or  an 
ordinary  mechanic  that  an  instrument  is  desired  for  a 
certain  use,  and  if  he  once  grasps  the  idea  he  will  show 
a  surprising  ability  to  make  something  that  will  serve  the 
desired  end. 

4.  Japanese  often  lack  steadfastness  of  purpose.  They 
do  not  like  to  begin  with  small  things  and  make  them 
grow  to  something  great.  New  enterprises  must  be  start- 
ed with  grand  opening  exercises  and  great  enthusiasm, 


22  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

only  to  be  abandoned  when  difficulties  arise.  The  Japa- 
nese are  easily  discouraged.  The  phrase  "  Shikata  ga 
nai,"  "  There  is  no  help  for  it,"  is  constantly  heard  as 
a  reason  for  discontinuing  effort,  or  even  as  an  excuse 
for  yielding  to  sin  instead  of  bravely  fighting  against  evil. 
The  people  are  opportunists,  allowing  their  action  to  be 
governed  by  what  will  serve  the  present  purpose  rather 
than  by  great  principles.  There  is  little  courage  in  re- 
sisting public  opinion.  **  The  spirit  of  the  times  is  unfa- 
vorable "  is  given  as  a  sufficient  reason  for  yielding  to 
evil  or  failing  to  uphold  what  is  known  to  be  right. 

5.  The  Japanese  are  changeable.  "  There  is  nothing 
fixed  in  Japan  except  change,"  was  the  remark  of  a  keen 
observer.  It  may  be  questioned,  however,  whether  the 
Japanese  are  naturally  quite  so  fickle  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed. It  must  be  remembered  that  during  the  last  forty 
years  new  ideas,  theories,  sciences,  and  inventions  have 
poured  into  the  country  like  a  flood.  It  is  no  wonder  that 
a  people  so  anxious  to  receive  the  benefits  of  the  new  civ- 
ilization have  been  bewildered,  attention  being  called  now 
in  one  direction  and  now  in  another.  The  new  movements 
have  been  largely  in  the  hands  of  young  men,  and  have 
lacked  the  steadying  influence  that  would  come  from  the 
conservatism  natural  to  age;  for  the  older  people  have 
been  disregarded  as  men  hopelessly  wedded  to  the  past, 
or  they  themselves  have  recognized  their  inability  to  take 
a  leading  part  in  movements  that  needed  the  energy  and 
adaptability  of  youth.  When  we  consider  how  descend- 
ants of  the  Roman  Catholic  Christians,  though  deprived 
of  the  outward  helps  and  forms  which  seem  so  important 
an  element  in  their  religion,  retained  their  faith  through 
two  and  a  half  centuries;  when  we  see  the  steady  way 
in  which  Japanese  statesmen  have  carried  out  the  pro- 
gramme inaugurated  at  the  time  of  the  Restoration  of 
1868,  we  may  question  whether  the  Japanese  are  so  fickle 
as  has  been  alleged,  and  also  whether  what  was  said  in 
the  preceding  paragraph  does  not  need  to  be  modified  by 
remembrance  of  many  who  in  the  face  of  great  obstacles 
have  persisted  in  carrying  out  their  purposes. 

6.  Some  one  has  wittily  said  that  the  Japanese  are 
"  great  in  little  things,  and  little  in  great  things."  Though 
such  generalizations  are  likely  to  be  misleading,  the  cur- 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  JAPAN  2$ 

rency  that  this  epigram  has  gained  shows  that  it  is  not 
wholly  devoid  of  truth.  Japanese  artists  are  skilful  in 
painting  flowers,  small  birds,  insects,  and  tiny  bits  of 
scenery;  they  seldom  succeed  in  their  pictures  of  men, 
large  animals,  and  broad  landscapes.  Japanese  poetry 
consists  chiefly  of  diminutive  odes  of  thirty-one  syllables 
that  give  a  mere  hint  of  some  poetical  thought;  nothing 
has  been  produced  that  can  be  compared  with  the  great 
epics,  dramas,  and  heroic  poems  of  Europe.  In  prose 
literature  there  is  little  in  which  Europeans  can  find  much 
pleasure,  except  novels  and  miscellaneous  collections  of 
anecdotes.  While  the  Japanese  are  ready  and  pleasing 
speakers,  there  have  been  no  great  orators. 

7.  The  Japanese  are  very  appreciative  of  beauty.  Even 
the  lower  classes  take  great  pleasure  in  flowers  and  in 
natural  scenery.  Ordinary  utensils  are  often  decorated 
with  simple  but  pleasing  ornaments.  Japanese  art,  which 
has  been  so  enthusiastically  welcomed  in  the  West,  is  the 
outgrowth  of  an  aesthetic  taste  that  is  widely  diffused 
among  the  people. 

8.  The  Japanese  are  hero-worshippers  in  both  a  literal 
and  figurative  sense.  Shrines  are  erected  to  the  memory 
of  great  warriors  and  statesmen.  School-books  and  other 
literature  for  the  young  record  the  deeds  of  noted  men. 
Children  whose  filial  piety  found  exaggerated  methods  of 
expression  are  held  up  as  models  for  those  who  come  after 
them.  One  unfortunate  result  of  this,  as  noted  by  Mr. 
Yokoi,  is  that  "  the  quiet,  peaceful  performance  of  daily 
duties,  small  and  unheroic,  but  so  necessary  for  the  high- 
est social  welfare,  seemed  to  fall  into  comparative  neglect." 
The  same  mental  qualities  that  make  the  Japanese  worship 
the  heroes  of  the  past  make  them  enthusiastic  followers 
of  great  leaders  in  the  present.  "  It  is  difficult,"  says 
Professor  G.  T.  Ladd,  ''  to  secure  from  natives  friendship 
and  devotion,  or  even  much  steadfast  interest,  for  anyone 
out  of  whom  they  cannot  make  and  maintain  a  hero." 

9.  A  very  valuable  study  of  Japanese  characteristics 
is  to  be  found  in  the  article  from  which  the  last  quotation 
is  taken,  and  which  appeared  in  Scrihner's  Magazine  for 
January,  1895.  Professor  Ladd  accounts  for  peculiarities 
and  seeming  contradictions  by  saying  that  the  Japanese 
are  of  the  "  sentimental  temperament."    The  distinguish- 


24  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

ing  mark  of  this  temperament  is  ''  great  susceptibility  to 
variety  of  influences — especially  on  the  side  of  feeling, 
and  independent  of  clear  logical  analysis  or  fixed  and 
well-comprehended  principles — with  a  tendency  to  a  will 
that  is  impulsive  and  liable  to  collapse.  Such  susceptibil- 
ity is  likely  to  be  accompanied  by  unusual  difficulty  in 
giving  due  weight  to  those  practical  considerations  which 
lead  to  compromises  in  politics,  to  steadiness  in  labor,  to 
patience  in  developing  the  details  of  science  and  philos- 
ophy, and  to  the  establishment  of  a  firm  connection  be- 
tween the  higher  life  of  thought  and  feeling  and  the  de- 
tails of  daily  conduct.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  the  artistic 
temperament,  the  temperament  which  makes  one  *  inter- 
esting,' the  *  clever  '  mind,  the  temperament  which  has 
a  suggestion  of  genius  at  its  command." 

10.  So  much  has  been  said  by  some  writers  about  the 
Japanese  being  wholly  or  nearly  without  the  idea  of  per- 
sonality, that  reference  should  be  made  to  this  opinion. 
It  can  be  found  elaborated  in  Mr.  Percival  Lowell's 
"  Soul  of  the  Far  East."  The  editor  of  the  present  vol- 
ume cannot  accept  the  view,  but  an  adequate  discussion 
of  the  question  would  require  too  much  space.  Suffice 
it  to  say  that  many  of  the  facts  adduced  in  support  of  the 
opinion  are  explained  by  a  dull  sense  of  individual  respon- 
sibility. This  may  be  due  in  part  to  pantheistic  ideas  dat- 
ing from  ancient  times,  but  has  been  increased  by  the 
influence  of  Buddhism,  which  explains  man's  present 
deeds  by  those  that  preceded  them  in  another  state  of 
existence,  thus  blunting  the  sense  of  obligation  to  do  right, 
and  taking  away  the  sense  of  guilt  for  sin. 

11.  Comparisons  are  often  made  betzveen  the  Japanese 
and  the  Chinese.  In  doing  this,  Americans  are  likely  to 
be  unfair  to  the  latter.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
Chinese  who  come  to  this  country  belong,  for  the  most 
part,  to  the  lower  classes,  while  the  Japanese — except  the 
laborers  who  come  to  the  Pacific  Coast — are  nearly  all 
students  or  the  most  enterprising  men  of  business.  The 
Japanese  are  more  progressive,  and  so  quicker  to  adopt 
western  ideas;  the  Chinese  are  slower  and  exceedingly 
conservative.  The  European  finds  the  Japanese  more 
companionable ;  but  he  is  more  likely  to  trust  the  Chinese. 
The  Japanese  are  brilliant;   the  Chinese  more  profound. 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  JAPAN  2$ 

The  former  are  the  French;  the  latter,  the  Germans  of 
Asia. 

VI.  Japanese  Standards  of  Morality. — It  is  difficult 
to  write  impartially  concerning  the  moral  condition  of  any 
people;  and  an  examination  of  what  different  authors 
have  said  about  the  Japanese  will  show  that  the  most  di- 
verse opinions  have  been  expressed.  Some  speak  of  them 
as  though  they  were  models  of  all  that  is  good, ''  who  have 
nothing  to  learn  from  western  lands,"  while  others  have 
described  them  as  wholly  given  over  to  immorality.  Per- 
haps it  cannot  rightly  be  said  that  one  people  is  naturally 
superior  or  inferior  to  another  in  morality.  If  men  of  dif- 
ferent lands  were  asked  to  write  down  the  names  of  the 
virtues,  the  lists  might  not  vary  much,  except  that  the 
order  of  the  words  would  show  the  comparative  emphasis 
laid  on  the  virtues  specified.  Vices  vary  in  outward  forms 
more  than  in  heinousness.  The  evil  that  most  forcibly 
tempts  those  brought  up  in  one  land  is  replaced  by  some- 
thing else  with  those  whose  early  education  has  been  dif- 
ferent. We  ought  to  remember  that  the  besetting  sins  of 
a  foreign  people  seem  worse  to  us  because  they  are  not 
the  ones  that  most  tempt  us;  and  that  we  may  fail  to 
appreciate  another's  virtues  because  they  are  not  the  ones 
that  we  make  most  prominent. 

I.  The  Japanese  emphasize  the  importance  of  loyalty. 
The  Imperial  family  has  been  considered  to  be  of  divine 
origin,  and  so  the  devotion  with  which  it  was  formerly 
regarded  partook  of  a  religious  nature.  Though  few 
educated  people  now  consider  that  the  Emperor  is  more 
than  man,  the  influence  of  the  old  idea  remains.  For 
centuries,  indeed,  the  mass  of  the  people  had  but  Httle 
thought  of  the  Emperors,  and  loyalty  meant  chiefly  de- 
votion to  one's  feudal  lord;  but  those  who  were  leaders 
in  the  revolution  that  overthrew  the  Shogunate,  did  away 
with  the  feudal  system,  restored  the  government  to  the 
Emperor,  and  have  emphasized  the  idea  of  loyalty  to  him 
until  it  has  taken  an  extreme  form,  which  often  finds 
expression  in  ways  that  to  foreigners  seem  childish  and 
ridiculous. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  draw  the  line  between  loyalty 
and  patriotism;  and  patriotism  in  the  sense  of  love  for 
the  whole  country  is  almost  a  new  sentiment  among  the 


26  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

Japanese ;  for,  as  the  feudal  lord  was  the  object  of  loyalty, 
the  province  which  he  governed  was  the  "  country  "  of 
his  subjects.  The  revolution  of  1868  expanded  these  nar- 
row views,  and  readiness  to  make  great  sacrifices  for  Em- 
peror and  country  has  aided  national  progress  and  given 
Japan  a  great  advantage  over  China,  where  patriotism  is 
still  comparatively  unknown.  Unfortunately,  these  patri- 
otic sentiments,  all  the  stronger  because  of  recent  growth, 
have  led  to  an  exaggerated  nationalism  that  unduly  praises 
whatever  is  Japanese,  dislikes  foreigners,  and  insists  that 
everything  coming  from  abroad  must  be  thoroughly  Jap- 
anized  before  it  can  be  accepted  by  one  who  loves  his 
country.  This  may  be  but  a  temporary  phenomenon  of 
awakening  national  consciousness,  to  be  compared  with 
what  was  seen  in  Russia,  as  described  by  Tourgenieff: 
"  Some  young  people  among  us  have  discovered  even  a 
Russian  arithmetic.  Two  and  two  do  indeed  make  four 
with  us  as  well  as  elsewhere,  but  more  pompously  it 
would  seem.  All  this  is  nothing  but  the  stammering  of 
men  who  are  just  awaking."  It  is  sometimes  hard  to  be 
patient  with  the  childish  bumptiousness  and  self-suffi- 
ciency, but  better  that  such  offences  should  come  than 
that  the  nation  should  not  be  aroused  to  its  new  life. 

2.  Filial  piety,  which  is  the  first  principle  of  Confucian 
ethics,  stands  next  to  loyalty  in  the  estimation  of  the 
Japanese.  Perhaps  "  fulfilment  of  duty  toward  one's  fam- 
ily "  would  more  fully  express  what  is  inculcated.  It  is 
hard  for  occidentals  to  understand  how  the  family  or 
"  house  "  is  regarded  by  the  Japanese.  It  is  considered  a 
terrible  calamity  to  have  a  family  come  to  an  end ;  it  is 
incumbent  upon  every  one  of  the  members  to  uphold  its 
honor.  Formerly,  in  obedience  to  the  Confucian  maxim, 
"  One  cannot  live  under  the  same  heaven  with  the  slayer 
of  one's  lord  or  father,"  violent  death  must  be  avenged 
by  the  nearest  relatives.  The  person  who  brought  dis- 
grace upon  his  house  could  be  called  upon  to  wipe  out 
the  stain  by  suicide.  Twenty-five  years  ago  a  mother 
called  before  her  a  son  who  had  become  interested  in 
Christianity,  placed  before  him  the  sword  of  his  dead 
father,  and  said :  "  You  are  disgracing  our  family.  Prom- 
ise to  have  nothing  more  to  do  with  the  foreign  religion, 
,or  else  slay  yourself  with  your  father's  sword."    **  Moth- 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  JAPAN  ZJ 

er,"  he  replied,  "  I  cannot  cease  to  study  that  which 
seems  to  me  to  be  true ;  neither  can  I  feel  that  it  is  right 
for  me  to  take  the  life  that  Heaven  has  given  me." 
^'  Then  but  one  thing  remains  possible,"  she  said,  grasp- 
ing the  sword.  "  I  will  do  what  little  is  in  my  power 
to  preserve  the  honor  of  our  house,"  and  it  was  with  diffi- 
culty that  she  was  restrained  from  taking  her  own  life.     . 

Anxiety  to  keep  the  family  from  extinction  has  in- 
creased the  prevalence  of  concubinage.  Adoption  is  also 
common,  not  from  motives  of  charity,  but  to  preserve  the 
family  name.  The  person  who  is  adopted  or  comes  into 
a  family  by  marriage — and  men  often  **  marry  into  the 
wife's  house  " — is  supposed  to  transfer  to  it  his  obedience 
and  affections.  A  few  years  since  a  young  man,  who 
had  but  a  week  or  two  before  been  adopted,  nearly  lost 
his  Hfe  at  sea.  In  telling  of  his  experiences,  he  said  the 
one  thought  that  filled  his  soul  was  sorrow  at  the  grief 
his  new  father  would  feel  on  account  of  his  death.  So 
far  as  his  words  went,  there  was  nothing  to  show  that 
he  remembered  the  one  who  a  few  days  before  had  been 
his  father.  Mr.  Yokoi  says,  "  The  wife  obeys  her  husband 
because  he  is  the  head  of  the  household ;  the  mother  [if 
a  widow]  obeys  her  son  because  he  is  the  head  of  the 
household.  The  father  did  the  same,  if  he  had  resigned 
his  place  as  the  head  of  the  household  and  was  living  in 
retirement."  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  filial  obedience  may 
sometimes  be  replaced  by  paternal  obedience. 

One  unfortunate  result  of  the  Japanese  view  is  that 
when  poverty  overtakes  her  family  a  girl  is  expected  to 
be  willing  to  give  herself  to  a  life  of  shame  in  order  to 
provide  funds  to  support  her  parents.  The  government 
requires  that  the  girl  shall  give  her  consent;  but  few 
would  long  resist  the  command  of  the  parent  or  elder 
brother,  and  the  transaction  practically  amounts  to  her 
sale  to  the  keeper  of  a  brothel.  Japanese  literature 
abounds  with  tales  of  daughters  who  have  shown  praise- 
worthy devotion  to  their  parents  by  voluntarily  offering 
themselves,  while  other  stories  tell  of  men  who  have  sold 
their  wives  in  order  to  get  means  to  help  aged  parents 
or  even  impoverished  masters.  A  great  difference  be- 
tween Japanese  ideas  of  filial  piety  and  our  own  is  that 
the  former  insist  upon  obedience  for  the  benefit  of  the 


28  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

parents  or  the  family,  while  we  desire  children  to  be 
obedient  because  we  believe  it  will  be  for  their  own  good. 

3.  Propriety  in  conduct  is  reckoned  among  the  leading 
virtues.  Hence  has  come  much  of  the  courtesy  that 
makes  so  favorable  an  impression  on  travellers,  who  are, 
however,  somewhat  misled  by  what  appears  upon  the 
surface.  The  peasantry  are  naturally  polite.  This  could 
hardly  be  the  case  without  the  same  being  to  some  extent 
true  of  other  classes.  Yet  the  emphasis  laid  upon  pro- 
priety, whose  rules  are  largely  determined  by  the  com- 
parative ranks  of  the  persons  concerned,  has  tended  to 
make  etiquette  replace  real  politeness.  The  inferior  is 
careful  to  show  due  respect  to  his  superior  and  to  the 
one  from  whom  he  expects  some  favor ;  but  a  superior  is 
apt  to  have  little  regard  for  those  beneath  him.  He  ad- 
dresses them  in  contemptuous  language  and  treats  them 
in  a  way  he  would  not  think  of  using  toward  those  whom 
he  considers  his  equals.  The  very  words  and  the  termi- 
nations of  his  verbs  show  how  he  regards  them.  The 
traveller  from  foreign  lands  is  usually  received  as  a  man 
to  be  ranked  among  the  upper  classes,  and  he  is  treated 
accordingly.  Many  tourists  see  only  merchants,  hotel- 
keepers,  and  others  who  seek  their  patronage  and  are 
therefore  very  low  in  their  bows.  Hence  more  courtesy 
is  often  attributed  to  the  people  than  they  really  possess. 
If  the  best  test  of  politeness  is  to  be  found  in  the  treatment 
accorded  to  a  person  of  lower  rank  than  one's  own,  the 
Japanese  of  the  upper  classes  do  not  deserve  all  the  praise 
that  has  been  accorded  to  them. 

4.  Truthfulness  is  not  a  prominent  characteristic  of  the 
Japanese.  Townsend  Harris,  the  first  American  Minister 
to  Japan,  may  have  gone  too  far  when,  after  several  try- 
ing experiences,  he  pronounced  them  "  the  greatest  liars 
upon  the  face  of  the  earth ;  "  yet  it  must  be  confessed 
that,  while  the  Japanese  have  much  to  say  about  sincerity 
as  the  great  duty  of  one  friend  to  another,  they  have  not 
emphasized  the  necessity  of  what  we  understand  by  truth- 
fulness. In  books  for  western  children  and  in  the  stories 
that  we  tell  them,  this  is  one  of  the  first  virtues  incul- 
cated ;  but  the  juvenile  and  ethical  literature  of  Japan  is 
nearly  silent  upon  the  subject.  Truth  for  truth's  sake  is 
little  valued.     Few  persons  seem  abashed  if  caught  in 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  JAPAN  29 

falsehood.  Buddhist  priests,  when  talking  with  educated 
people,  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  much  of  what  they 
teach  to  the  masses  is  only  a  tissue  of  pious  devices  by 
which  they  seek  to  influence  men  too  ignorant  to  under- 
stand the  truth. 

5.  The  inculcation  of  financial  honesty  by  the  ethical 
teachers  of  Japan  has  been  lessened  by  the  fact  that  in 
feudal  times  the  military  gentry  were  taught  to  despise 
money  and  moneymaking.  The  merchant  was  considered 
to  belong  to  the  lowest  of  the  recognized  classes  of  so- 
ciety, being  inferior  to  the  farmer  and  the  artisan.  Since 
tradesmen  were  despised  and  hampered  by  many  restric- 
tions, it  is  not  strange  that  the  code  of  business  ethics 
was  very  lax.  Within  the  last  few  years  business  meth- 
ods have  been  transformed.  Many  of  the  gentry  and 
some  of  the  nobility  are  engaging  in  trade ;  but  the  influ- 
ence of  old  ideas  and  customs  still  remains,  and  it  will  be 
long  ere  a  high  standard  of  business  morality  is  estab- 
lished. Foreigners  trading  in  Japan  are  loud  in  their 
complaints  against  the  native  merchants,  who  do  not  de- 
liver goods  equal  to  the  sample  nor  fulfil  contracts  that 
involve  them  in  any  loss.  The  peasantry  is,  in  the  main, 
honest.  Domestic  servants  and  other  employees  are  in 
the  habit  of  taking  "  squeezes  "  from  what  passes  through 
their  hands.  They  also  make  arrangements  with  grocers 
and  others  for  receiving  a  percentage  from  all  sales. 
If  refused,  they  will  complain  to  their  employers  of  the 
quality  of  goods  furnished,  or  in  other  ways  will  cause 
the  patronage  to  be  transferred  to  some  other  merchant 
more  ready  to  divide  the  profits.  While  charges  of  brib- 
ery are  frequently  brought  against  legislators  and  others, 
there  appears  to  be  but  little  of  the  official  peculation  that 
abounds  in  many  oriental  lands.  The  emphasis  laid  upon 
loyalty  has  done  much  to  prevent  cheating  the  govern- 
ment. 

6.  Outside  of  Christian  circles  not  much  has  been  done 
to  promote  temperance.  One  of  the  Buddhist  command- 
ments, indeed,  forbids  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquor,  and 
writers  on  ethics  have  not  wholly  overlooked  the  evils  of 
intemperance;  still,  public  opinion  does  not  frown  upon 
occasional  intoxication,  and  there  are  few  people  who 
do  not  at  times  drink  to  excess.    Fortunately,  however. 


3Q  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

except  on  public  holidays  and  religious  festivals,  there  is 
but  little  drunkenness  seen  on  the  streets.  Most  of  the 
drinking  takes  place  in  the  evening,  either  at  home  or 
in  "  tea-houses  "  and  other  places  where  companies  gather 
for  merry-making.  The  Japanese,  when  intoxicated,  are 
seldom  quarrelsome.  They  sing,  dance,  and  are  jolly 
rather  than  ugly.  This  may  be  partly  owing  to  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  people  and  partly  to  the  qualities  of  the 
liquor  commonly  used.  This  is  brewed  from  rice  and 
is  called  sake.  Some  observers  think  that  a  change  in  the 
actions  of  intoxicated  people  can  be  seen  as  new  kinds  of 
drink  are  being  used.  Foreign  liquors  of  various  kinds 
have  been  introduced;  but  most  of  them  are  too  costly 
to  be  purchased  by  any  except  the  wealthy.  Large  quan- 
tities of  cheap  alcohol  are  therefore  imported  from  Amer- 
ica and  Europe.  This  is  mixed  with  water,  saccharine, 
and  some  flavoring  substance.  It  is  thought  that  these 
artificial  drinks  produce  a  more  riotous  form  of  intoxica- 
tion, and  they  are  vastly  increasing  the  evils  of  intem- 
perance. 

Tobacco  is  not  chewed  nor  used  as  snuff,  but  both  men 
and  women  smoke.  Children  commence  the  habit  at  a 
very  early  age.  Cigarettes  imported  from  America  or 
manufactured  in  the  country  are  taking  the  place  of  the 
diminutive  Japanese  pipes,  and  their  almost  universal  use 
by  young  people  works  great  harm. 

7.  Chastity  is  a  virtue  that  public  opinion  in  Japan 
does  not  demand  in  men,  nor  in  unmarried  women  with 
any  such  insistence  as  prevails  in  western  lands.  Licen- 
tiousness is  the  vice  that  has  given  the  country  its  most 
unsavory  reputation.  There  is  no  strong  public  senti- 
ment against  it.  The  government  licenses  houses  of  ill- 
fame  and  puts  its  seal  on  the  documents  by  which  girls 
are  delivered  over  to  a  life  of  shame.  Concubinage  is 
common  among  officials  and  men  of  wealth.  Men  and 
even  boys  are  not  ashamed  to  speak  of  their  immoral 
deeds.  In  mixed  companies  there  is  a  freedom  in  con- 
versation and  story-telling  that  helps  to  lower  the  moral 
tone  of  society.  Many  customs,  though  not  to  be  judged 
by  our  standards,  tend  to  decrease  modesty  of  thought, 
word,  and  deed. 

Earnest  Japanese  are  recognizing  the  evil  reputation 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  JAPAN  %\ 

that  their  country  has  gained,  and  are  anxious  that  it  may 
not  merit  the  title,  **  Land  of  Licentiousness."  The  influ- 
ence of  foreign  opinion  has  caused  the  removal  from 
public  gaze  of  many  things  that  were  common  at  the 
time  of  which  Professor  Chamberlain  has  written :  "  Not 
the  loosest  of  European  viveurs,  not  the  lewdest  grogshop- 
haunting  English  Jack-ashore  but  would  have  blushed  at 
the  really  unimaginable  indecency  which  preceded  our 
advent  in  this  country.  Why!  until  we,  the  Yokohama, 
Tokyo,  and  other  foreign  residents,  came  here  and  had 
been  here  long  enough  for  our  influence  to  be  generally 
felt,  the  very  sweetmeats  were  indecent,  the  very  toys  of 
the  children  were  indecent,  the  very  temples  of  religion 
were  indecent." 

VII.  The  Position  of  Woman. — i.  In  Japan  the  po- 
sition of  woman  is  much  higher  than  in  other  Asiatic 
countries.  This  is  the  more  creditable  to  the  people  be- 
cause Buddhism  accords  her  a  very  low  place,  saying 
that  her  only  hope  of  salvation  is  through  being  re-bom 
as  a  man.  In  the  history  and  literature  of  Japan  women 
have  gained  great  honor.  Still,  it  must  be  said  that  from 
a  western  standpoint  the  Japanese  woman  is  not  to  be 
envied.  Her  lot  is  summarized  in  "  the  three  obediences  " 
— while  unmarried,  obedience  to  her  father;  when  mar- 
ried, obedience  to  her  husband ;  when  widowed,  obedience 
to  her  son. 

2.  "  The  Great  Learning  for  Woman,"  a  treatise  com- 
posed by  the  celebrated  moralist,  Kaibara,  gives  the  ideas 
that  have  prevailed  in  Japan.  A  few  extracts  from  Pro- 
fessor Chamberlain's  translation  will  show  their  general 
spirit : 

"  The  only  qualities  that  befit  a  woman  are  gentle  obe- 
dience, chastity,  mercy,  and  quietness. 

"  It  is  the  chief  duty  of  a  girl  living  in  the  parental 
house  to  practise  filial  piety  toward  her  father  and  mother. 
But  after  marriage  her  chief  duty  is  to  honor  her  father- 
in-law  and  mother-in-law — to  honor  them  beyond  her  own 
father  and  mother — to  love  and  reverence  them  with  all 
ardor,  and  to  tend  them  with  every  practice  of  filial  piety. 

"  A  woman  has  no  particular  lord.  She  must  look  to 
her  husband  as  her  lord,  and  must  serve  him  with  all 
worship  and  reverence,  not  despising  or  thinking  lightly 
of  him.    The  great  life-long  duty  of  woman  is  obedience. 


32  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

"  The  five  worst  maladies  that  afflict  the  female  mind 
are  indocility,  discontent,  slander,  jealousy,  and  siUiness. 
Without  any  doubt,  these  five  maladies  infest  seven  or 
eight  out  of  every  ten  women,  and  it  is  from  these  that 
arises  the  inferiority  of  women  to  men.  A  woman  should 
cure  them  by  self-inspection  and  self-reproach. 

"  We  are  told  that  it  was  the  custom  of  the  ancients,  on 
the  birth  of  a  female  child,  to  let  it  lie  on  the  floor  for 
the  space  of  three  days.  Even  in  this  may  be  seen  the 
likening  of  the  man  to  Heaven  and  of  the  woman  to 
Earth ;  and  the  custom  should  teach  a  woman  how  neces- 
sary it  is  for  her  in  everything  to  yield  to  her  husband 
the  first,  and  to  be  herself  content  with  the  second,  place." 

3.  The  book  enumerates  the  faults  that  are  termed  the 
"  Seven  Reasons  for  Divorce."  They  are  disobedience  to 
parents-in-law,  barrenness,  lewdness,  jealousy,  leprosy, 
garrulity,  and  theft.  Though  divorce  is  not  so  common 
as  formerly,  there  were,  in  1894,  114,436  divorces  to  361,- 
319  marriages.  The  marriage  customs  doubtless  have 
much  to  do  with  the  frequency  of  divorce,  matches  being 
usually  arranged  by  a  "  go-between,"  who  is  requested 
by  a  young  man's  parents  to  find  a  wife  for  their  son. 
There  is  little  opportunity  for  the  young  people  to  become 
acquainted  before  marriage,  and  sometimes  they  do  not 
see  each  other  until  the  wedding-day.  It  is  not  strange 
that  divorces  often  follow  marriages  arranged  in  such  a 
way.  Very  often  incompatibility  between  the  bride  and 
her  mother-in-law  causes  separation  between  a  husband 
and  wife  who  are  well  satisfied  with  each  other. 

4.  Western  ideas  are  doing  much  to  make  the  lot  of 
Japanese  women  easier.  They  are  not  shut  up  so  closely 
in  their  homes,  and  a  larger  proportion  of  them  is  being 
educated,  though  outside  of  Christian  schools  there  are 
but  few  educational  institutions  of  the  higher  grades  that 
are  open  to  them.  A  gratifying  advance  in  connection 
with  the  ordinary  public  schools  is  shown  by  the  statistics 
which  tell  us  that  whereas,  in  1873,  only  forty  per  cent, 
of  the  boys  and  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  girls  were  in 
school,  in  1896  the  attendance  had  risen  to  seventy-nine 
and  forty-eight  per  cent.,  respectively. 

VIII.  Classes  of  Society — i.  The  people  of  Japan 
below  the  nobility  were  formerly  divided  into  four  prin- 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  JAPAIT  33 

cipal  classes :  The  samurai,  or  military  and  literary  class 
— the  sword  and  the  pen  being  united  as  in  no  other  coun- 
try; the  farmers  and  agriculturists;  the  artisan  class; 
the  merchants  and  shop-keepers,  who  have  always  been 
regarded  as  the  lowest  in  social  rank  in  Japan.  Below 
those,  again,  outside  the  pale  of  humanity,  were  the  pa- 
riahs of  Japan,  the  eta — generally  living  in  separate  vil- 
lages, and  following  the  occupation  of  skinners,  tanners, 
leather-dressers,  grave-diggers,  etc. — and  the  hinin,  or 
beggars.  These  were  enfranchised  in  1871.  Since  then, 
farmer,  artisan,  trader,  and  etc  have  been  on  an  equal 
footing  before  the  law ;  while  the  distinction  between  them 
and  the  shisoku,  as  the  samurai  are  now  called,  is  little 
more  than  one  of  name.  Society  is  now  divided  into  three 
classes:  the  kwazoku,  or  nobility;  the  shizoku,  or  gen- 
try;  and  the  heimin,  or  common  people. 

2.  At  the  head  of  the  samurai  in  feudal  times  were  the 
daimyos,  the  great  feudal  chiefs;  and  above  them  again 
in  rank,  though  not  in  wealth  and  power,  were  the  kuge, 
or  court  nobles  of  Kyoto,  numbering  150  families,  all 
branches,  more  or  less  distant,  of  the  Imperial  house. 
The  samurai  had  the  right  to  wear  two  swords.  For 
centuries  they  ''  monopolized  arms,  learning,  patriotism, 
and  intellect."  They  furnished  the  leaders  who  brought 
about  the  Revolution  of  1868.  Since  then  most  of  the 
officials  and  leaders  of  public  thought  have  come  from 
their  midst.  The  advance  of  education  and  the  establish- 
ment of  representative  government  has  had  a  tendency 
to  give  more  power  to  other  classes.  Hence,  in  the  lower 
house  of  the  first  Imperial  Parliament,  only  107  of  the  300 
members  were  shizoku ;  and  only  nine  of  the  forty-five 
persons  chosen  by  the  highest  tax-payers  of  the  prefect- 
ures to  represent  them  in  the  upper  house. 

IX.  The  Language — i.  When  Japan  was  first  opened 
the  opinion  became  common  that  its  language  would 
be  an  easy  one  for  Europeans  to  acquire ;  now  it  is  rec- 
ognized to  be  one  of  the  most  difficult.  "  But,  of  course, 
not  so  hard  as  Chinese,"  says  many  a  person,  little  know- 
ing that  in  addition  to  the  original  Japanese,  the  student 
must  also  learn  Chinese  in  two  or  more  of  its  ancient 
dialects.  The  civilization  of  Japan  came  largely  frorrl 
China,  and  with  it  came  the  Chinese  method  of  writing. 


34  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

as  well  as  a  large  infusion  of  Chinese  words.  Since  that 
time  there  has  been  but  little  development  of  the  real  Jap- 
anese language,  new  ideas  having  found  expression  in 
compound  Chinese  words.  Nearly  every  ideograph  has 
two  and  sometimes  three  Chinese  pronunciations  which 
must  never  be  confused  and  must  sometimes  be  replaced 
by  the  Japanese  word. 

2.  The  use  of  these  ideographs  imposes  a  great  burden 
upon  the  young  people  of  Japan,  who  must  learn  a  large 
number  of  them  in  order  to  read  any  but  the  simplest 
books,  or  even  to  understand  the  signs  upon  the  shops. 
There  has  been  much  discussion  about  the  possibility  of 
doing  away  with  the  system.  Anything  can  be  easily 
written  with  the  Japanese  syllabary  of  fifty  characters, 
or  even  with  the  Roman  letters,  and  there  is  no  trouble 
in  pronouncing  what  is  so  written ;  but  since  so  many 
of  the  syllabic  words  introduced  from  the  Chinese  have 
the  same  sound,  the  ambiguity  is  so  great  that  without 
the  accompanying  ideographs  to  help  the  eye  it  is  often 
impossible  to  understand  the  meaning. 

3.  There  is  probably  no  way  to  get  over  the  difficulty 
until  Japanese  writers  are  ready  to  adopt  a  simpler  style, 
to  shun  Chinese  words,  and  thus  to  develop  the  language 
of  their  own  country.  The  colloquial  language  differs 
considerably  from  the  written.  There  are  local  dialects, 
but  those  of  Tokyo  or  Kyoto  are  everywhere  understood. 


ni 

Japan  in  Past  Times 

L  Alleged  Antiquity  of  the  Imperial  Dynasty — 
1.  The  present  Emperor  of  Japan,  Mutsuhito,  claims  to 
be  the  123d  sovereign  in  direct  succession.  Remembering 
that  Queen  Victoria  is  only  the  thirtieth  from  William  the 
Conqueror,  we  can  form  an  idea  of  the  alleged  antiquity 
of  Japanese  annals.  The  Japanese  boast  that,  in  marked 
contrast  to  all  other  nations,  they  can  point  to  one  line 
of  emperors  that  has  been  unbroken  for  more  than  2,500 
years.  Many  would  consider  it  almost  treasonable  to 
doubt  the  assertion.  The  first  Emperor  is  said  to  have 
been  Jimmu  Tenno,  the  date  of  whose  accession  corre- 
sponds with  660  B.C.,  and  who  wOQld  tlius  be  contempo- 
rary with  Manasseh  King  of  Judah  and  Assurbanipal 
King  of  Assyria.  His  parents  were  gods,  descended  from 
the  great  Sun-Goddess.  The  title  Tenno  signifies  Heav- 
enly King,  and,  like  Tenshi,  or  Son  of  Heaven,  is  a  com- 
mon appellation  for  the  Emperors.  The  word  Mikado, 
formerly  current,  is  now  but  seldom  heard. 

2.  Whatever  may  be  believed  by  Japanese,  foreign 
scholars  consider  that  authentic  history  does  not  begin 
till  the  seventh  century,  a.d.  ;  but  from  that  time  to  the 
present  the  records  are  complete  and  trustworthy.  What- 
ever reduction  must  be  made  from  the  alleged  antiquity 
of  the  Imperial  line,  it  occupies  a  unique  place  in  the 
world.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  fam- 
ily has  been  kept  up  by  concubinage  and  by  adoption  from 
collateral  lines. 

II.  Ancient  Literature. — i.  Japan  possesses  a  volumi- 
nous literature  that  contains  the  traditions  and  history  of 
past  ages.  The  oldest  works  extant  are  the  Kojiki,  or 
"  Records  of  Ancient  Matters,'*  and  the  " Nihongi'*  or 
"  Chronicles  of  Japan/'  the  former  completed  in  712  A.a, 

35 


36  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

and  the  latter  in  720.  The  two  books  treat  of  the  same 
things,  but,  as  said  by  Professor  Chamberlain,  "  the  lan- 
guage of  the  latter  and  its  manner  of  treating  the  national 
traditions  stand  in  notable  contrast,  to  the  unpretending 
simplicity  of  the  elder  work."  "  The  subject-matter  is 
touched  up,  rearranged,  and  polished,  so  as  to  make  the 
work  resemble  a  Chinese  history  as  far  as  possible."  Many 
commentaries  have  been  written  upon  these  books.  They 
contain  the  cosmogony,  the  mythology,  and  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  nation.  Much  of  the  contents  is  fabulous  on 
jlhe  face  of  it. 

2.  The  chief  authority  for  the  later  and  more  trust- 
worthy history  is  the  Dai  Nihon  Shi,  or  "  History  of 
Great  Japan,"  a  really  great  work,  published  in  17 15.  It 
is  written  in  pure  Chinese,  which  is  to  Japanese  what 
Latin  is  to  the  languages  of  modern  Europe,  and  fills 
243  volumes.  The  people  are  enthusiastically  fond  of  the 
history  of  their  country,  and  local  records,  diaries,  official 
guide-books,  etc.,  abound.  There  are  hundreds  of  chil- 
dren's histories;  and  the  national  annals  hold  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  education  of  the  young. 

III.  Early  Traditions. — i.  This  is  not  the  place  to 
attempt  any  summary  of  Japanese  history,  but  a  few  notes 
of  real  or  fancied  events  may  be  added.  The  earliest  tra- 
ditions of  the  empire,  embodied  in  the  "  Records  of  An- 
cient Matters  "  and  the  "  Chronicles  of  Japan,"  are  of  the 
scantiest  kind  possible.  From  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  Jimmu's  successor  there  is,  says  Professor  Chamber- 
lain, "  a  blank  of — according  to  the  accepted  chronology 
— 500  years,  during  which  absolutely  nothing  is  related 
excepting  dreary  genealogies — the  place  where  each  sov- 
ereign dwelt  and  .where  he  was  buried,  and  the  age  to 
which  he  lived." 

2.  But  the  later  traditions  have  their  heroes:  Suijin, 
the  civilizer,  who,  with  the  aid  of  his  generals,  subdued 
various  turbulent  districts  in  the  first  century  B.C. ; 
Yamato-Dake,  of  the  Imperial  family,  a  great  conqueror ; 
and  the  Emperor  Seimu,  who  divided  the  empire  into 
provinces,  districts,  cities,  towns,  etc.,  in  the  second  cen- 
tury A.D. ;  and,  in  particular,  the  Empress  Jingu  (i.e., 
"  Godlike  Exploit  "),  who,  after  her  husband's  death,  took 
the  reins  of  power,  and  subsequently  assisted  her  son, 


JAPAN  IN  PAST  TIMES  37 

who  was  born  after  her  return  from  Korea,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  empire.  She  flourished  in  the  third  century 
A.D.,  was  renowned  for  her  '*  beauty,  piety,  inteUigence, 
energy,  and  martial  valor,"  and  is  particularly  remem- 
bered as  the  conqueror  of  Korea.  In  the  fourth  century 
A.D.  lived  Nintoku,  the  sage  Emperor,  a  man  of  simple 
tastes  and  habits,  whose  benign  rule  was  characterized 
by  paternal  consideration  for  the  poorer  classes  of  his 
subjects.  He  remitted  all  taxation  for  three  years,  and 
it  is  said  that  during  his  reign  there  was  no  criminal  trial. 
IV.  Historical  Events. — Although  some  actual  facts 
may  have  been  at  the  foundation  of  the  traditions  already 
given,  they  must  be  classed  as  myths  where  a  possible 
sub-stratum  of  truth  has  been  overlaid  with  fancy  and 
fable.  We  now  turn  to  a  later  period,  where  we  find 
surer  ground  for  tracing  the  historical  development  of 
the  nation. 

1.  Important  Changes. — In  the  seventh  century  a.d. 
the  custom  of  attaching  special  names  to  successive  pe- 
riods of  years,  as  in  China,  was  introduced,  though  unlike 
that  country,  these  periods  have  not  always  coincided 
with  the  reigns  of  different  emperors.  The  present  era, 
commencing  with  1868,  is  known  as  that  of  Meiji,  "  Illus- 
trious Rule."  The  Emperor  who  introduced  this  system 
also  appointed  governors  over  the  provinces,  established 
posts,  and  enrolled  an  army  for  defensive  purposes.  In 
the  same  century  the  reign  of  Tenji,  which  was  charac- 
terized by  the  introduction  of  water-wheels,  the  first  man- 
ufacture of  iron-ware,  and  the  foundation  of  schools,  is 
considered  the  most  prosperous  one  of  the  middle  ages. 
In  the  next  century  the  Chinese  calendar  was  introduced. 
It  continued  in  use  until  1872,  when  it  was  superseded  by 
the  Gregorian. 

2.  Rise  of  the  Feudal  System. — Though  the  Emperor 
remained  the  absolute  sovereign,  the  actual  power  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  noble  families,  who  set  up  puppet 
mikados,  to  whom  they  married  their  daughters  and  whom 
they  surrounded  by  influences  that  tempted  to  indolence 
and  debauchery.  After  this  had  continued  for  three  or 
four  centuries,  great  military  leaders  arose.  The  wars 
between  contending  factions  favored  the  development  of 
a  feudal  system.     The  great  nobles  or  daimyos  in  their 


38  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

fortified  castles  became  more  and  more  powerful  and  in- 
dependent. Their  armed  retainers  formed  the  military 
caste  of  samurai,  already  noticed.  For  many  centuries, 
coming  down  to  our  own  day,  Japan  was  in  much  the 
same  condition  as  Scotland  is  pictured  to  us  in  the  pages 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  parcelled  out  among  great  clans,  the 
chiefs  of  which  professed  unbounded  loyalty  to  the  sov- 
ereign, while  keeping  much  of  the  real  power  in  their 
own  hands.  The  daimyos  were  the  Macduffs  and  the 
Macdonalds,  the  Campbells  and  the  Douglases  of  Japan. 
3.  Rise  of  the  Shogunate. — Toward  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century  a.d.,  Yoritomo,  who  belonged  to  the  Mi- 
namoto  clan,  one  of  the  two  great  rival  families  of  the 
time,  and  who  after  his  father's  defeat  had  been  exiled 
as  a  boy,  succeeded,  in  concert  with  other  members  of  the 
family,  in  completely  destroying  the  power  of  the  rival 
house.  Thus  becoming  military  master  of  the  country, 
he  ended  by  himself  usurping  all  the  executive  authority 
of  the  state  while  still  acknowledging  the  Emperor  as  his 
liege  lord.  He  subsequently  received  the  title  of  Shogun 
(General),  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  dual  form  of 
government  which  lasted  till  1868,  more  than  200  years. 
Foreigners  have  been  greatly  puzzled  by  this  system,  and 
long  supposed  that  there  were  two  emperors — the  Mikado, 
or  spiritual  Emperor,  and  the  Shogun,  or  temporal  Em- 
peror. The  latter  became  better  known  by  the  name  of 
Tycoon  (the  word  signifies  Great  Prince),  a  title  which 
was  used  without  authorization  by  the  later  Shoguns  in 
their  negotiations  with  foreigners.  Though  the  Shoguns 
were  practically  rulers  of  the  land,  they  acknowledged  the 
Emperor  as  their  superior  and  were  nominally  appointed 
by  him.  Yoritomo  made  Kamakura  his  capital,  and  there 
the  power  of  the  Shoguns  was  chiefly  centred  until 
leyasu  transferred  it  to  Yedo  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  Mikado  held  his  court  at  the  sacred  capital  Kyoto, 
rarely  appearing  before  his  subjects,  but  was  worshipped 
by  them  as  a  god,  though  often  treated  with  great  neglect. 
For  instance,  it  is  related  that  the  body  of  one  Emperor 
lay  for  several  days  unburied  because  sufficient  money 
could  not  be  raised  for  funeral  expenses,  while  for  a  like 
reason  the  coronation  ceremony  of  another  was  delayed 
for  twenty-two  years. 


JAPAN  IN  PAST  TIMES  39 

4.  Noted  Military  Rulers. — The  greatest  of  the  mili- 
tary rulers  was  Hideyoshi,  who,  however,  never  took  the 
title  of  Shogun.  He  is  better  known  as  Taiko  Sama  (a 
title  meaning  ''Great  Counsellor"),  and  was  contempo- 
rary with  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  sent  out  an  expedition 
that  conquered  Korea,  and  he  is  said  to  have  planned  for 
an  invasion  of  China.  It  was  he  who,  as  will  be  afterward 
narrated,  banished  the  Jesuit  missionaries.  On  his  death 
in  1598  one  of  his  generals,  leyasu,  of  the  Tokugawa 
clan,  usurped  power,  and  after  a  severe  struggle,  which 
is  interesting  to  us  on  account  of  the  part  taken  in  it 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  Japanese,  totally  defeated  his  rivals 
at  the  battle  of  Sekigahara.  "  This  battle  decided  the 
condition  of  Japan  for  over  two  centuries,  the  settlement 
of  the  Tokugawa  family  in  hereditary  succession  to  the 
Shogunate,  the  fate  of  Christianity,  the  isolation  of  Japan 
from  the  world,  the  fixing  into  permanency  of  the  dual 
system  and  of  feudalism,  the  glory  and  greatness  of  Yedo 
as  the  Shogun's  capital."  The  last  of  the  Shoguns,  who 
was  deposed  in  1868,  belonged  to  the  Tokugawa  family, 
and  was  the  fifteenth  in  succession  from  leyasu. 


IV 

The  Religions  of  Japan 

1.  Shintoism. — i.  Meaning  of  the  Name. — The  an- 
cient religion  of  the  Japanese  is  called  Kami  no  michi, 
"  the  way  of  the  gods."  The  Chinese  equivalent  of  the 
name,  Shin-to,  is  the  one  commonly  used;  hence  this 
religion  is  called  by  English  writers  Shintoism. 

2.  General  Description. — Mr.  Kodera  describes  it  as 
"  simply  a  remnant  of  the  primitive  worship  long  preva- 
lent among  the  rude  tribes  of  the  islands  of  Japan,  and 
subsequently  developed  and  shaped  according  to  the  de- 
gree of  civilization  to  which  they  attained ;  "  "a  mixture 
of  that  nature  worship  which  is  so  common  among  unciv- 
ilized races,  and  the  worship  of  ancestors,  especially  of 
some  chiefs  or  heroes."  Nature  worship  led  to  the  deifica- 
tion of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  at  least  reverence  for 
lofty  mountains,  bold  cliffs,  aged  trees,  and  other  striking 
objects.  It  also  took  on  debased  forms ;  and  though  the 
government,  after  the  advent  of  foreigners,  caused  many 
offensive  images  to  be  removed,  they  are  still  occasionally 
seen.  Shintoism  in  its  present  forms  is  chiefly  founded 
on  the  mythologies  and  traditions  preserved  in  the  Ko- 
jiki,  where  it  appears  as  "  a  bundle  of  miscellaneous 
superstitions,  rather  than  a  co-ordinate  system." 

3.  Its  Mythology. — Shintoism  represents  the  first  dei- 
ties as  coming  into  existence  when  from  a  state  of  chaos 
heaven  and  earth  spontaneously  began.  Five  single  dei- 
ties and  seven  pairs,  called  the  Seven  Divine  Generations, 
successively  appear,  while  the  earth  still  continues  as  a 
formless  mass,  and  the  land  is  like  floating  oil  that  drifts 
about  as  does  a  jelly-fish.  Then  Izanagi  and  Izanami, 
the  last  of  these  divine  pairs,  receive  commandment  from 
the  heavenly  deities  to  consolidate  and  give  form  to  the 
drifting  land.     They  **  are  united  in  marriage  and  give 

40 


THE  RELIGIONS  OF  JAPAN  41 

birth  to  the  various  islands  of  the  Japanese  archipelago. 
When  they  have  finished  producing  islands  they  proceed 
to  the  production  of  a  large  number  of  gods  and  god- 
desses, many  of  whom  correspond  with  what  we  should 
call  personifications  of  the  powers  of  nature." 

Subsequently  Izanami  dies  in  childbirth  and  goes  to 
the  land  of  Hades.  Izanagi  visits  her  there,  and  on  his 
return  "  purifies  himself  by  bathing  in  a  stream,  and, 
as  he  does  so,  fresh  deities  are  born  from  each  article 
of  clothing  that  he  throws  down  on  the  river-bank,  and 
from  each  part  of  his  person.  One  of  these  deities  was 
the  Sun-goddess,  who  was  born  from  his  left  eye,"  and 
to  whom  he  gave  the  charge  to  rule  the  Plain  of  High 
Heaven.  This  late-born  child  of  Izanagi  is  the  supreme 
deity  of  Shintoism,  and  her  supremacy  rests  not  only  on 
the  fact  that  the  sun  is  the  greatest  visible  sign  of  the 
powers  of  nature,  but  on  the  belief  that  the  Sun-goddess 
is  the  ancestress  of  the  ruling  family  of  Japan.  Each  suc- 
cessive Emperor,  according  to  the  orthodox  Shinto  view, 
is  directly  descended  from  her.  This  is,  indeed,  the  funda- 
mental belief  of  present-day  Shintoism,  and  out  of  it 
grows  the  duty  of  absolute  obedience  to  the  Emperor, 
which  is  one  of  the  main  characteristic  features  of  the 
system.  According  to  Motoori,  as  summarized  by  Sir 
Ernest  Satow,  he  "  is  the  immovable  ruler  who  must 
endure  to  the  end  of  time,  as  long  as  the  sun  and  moon 
continue  to  shine."  In  ancient  language  the  Emperor  was 
called  a  god,  and,  although  no  longer  worshipped,  he  is 
regarded  with  extreme  veneration,  and  unquestioning 
obedience  is  enforced  as  a  fundamental  duty. 

4.  Objects  of  Worship. — Together  with  the  Sun-god- 
dess, numerous  other  deities,  commonly  spoken  of  as  "  the 
eight  hundred  myriads  of  gods,"  are  worshipped.  These 
include  "  not  only  the  Imperial  ancestors  and  those  divine 
personages  who  lived  in  the  mythological  age,  but  numer- 
ous poets,  scholars,  warriors,  statesmen,  and  patriots 
"  who  have  been  successively  deified  in  both  ancient  and 
modern  times  by  Imperial  decree,  it  being  a  part  of  the 
prerogative  of  the  representative  of  the  Sun-goddess  thus 
to  appoint  gods  to  be  honored  by  the  nation." 

These  multitudinous  deities  govern  all  things.  "  They 
direct  the  changes  of  the  seasons,  the  wind  and  the  rain, 


42  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

the  good  and  bad  fortune  of  states  and  individual  men ; " 
hence  the  occasions  for  seeking  their  protection  and  de- 
liverance are  manifold.  Their  worship  is  very  general. 
In  most  houses  the  "  god-shelf  '*  is  found,  on  which  are 
placed  symbols  showing  that  one  or  more  Shinto  deities 
are  reverenced  by  the  family.  Every  village,  town,  or 
division  of  a  town  has  its  patron  deity  and  common  tem- 
ple ;  the  inhabitants  of  the  district  are  called  the  children 
of  the  god  and  bring  their  infant  children  to  be  dedicated 
to  him.  When  the  local  festivals  are  held  business  is 
often  suspended  and  each  householder  hangs  a  large  lan- 
tern at  his  door  in  honor  of  the  god. 

5.  ''Revival  of  Pure  Shinto" — The  introduction  of 
Buddhism  in  the  sixth  century  a.d.  checked  the  develop- 
ment of  Shintoism.  By  different  sects  the  two  religions 
were  combined  in  varying  degrees;  but  Buddhism,  as 
the  stronger  force,  was  the  most  prominent  element  in 
these  admixtures.  In  the  eighteenth  century  began  what 
has  been  called  the  "  Revival  of  Pure  Shinto."  Literary 
men  became  interested  in  the  ancient  history  of  the  coun- 
try and  inaugurated  a  movement,  partly  religious  and 
partly  political,  whose  object  was  a  renewed  reverence 
for  the  Imperial  family  and  a  return  to  the  old  ways.  This 
movement  culminated  in  the  revolution  of  1868,  which 
overthrew  the  Shogunate  and  restored  the  government 
to  the  Emperors.  Shintoism  was  then  made  the  state  re- 
ligion, to  be  superintended  by  a  Council  for  Spiritual  Af- 
fairs, of  equal  rank  with  the  council  that  controlled  tem- 
poral matters.  Many  Buddhist  temples  that  occupied  the 
places  once  held  by  Shinto  shrines  were  stripped  of  their 
images  and  ornaments  as  they  were  restored  to  the  care 
of  Shinto  priests.  The  movement  soon  lost  its  intensity, 
the  Council  of  Spiritual  Affairs  was  gradually  reduced 
to  the  rank  of  a  sub-bureau,  and  most  of  the  temples 
returned  to  their  former  condition. 

6.  Shinto  Shrines. — Great  simplicity  characterizes  the 
architecture  of  Shinto  shrines.  During  the  ascendency 
of  Buddhism  elaborately  decorated  and  highly  ornament- 
ed temples  were  erected  with  torii — a  kind  of  gateway — 
of  bronze  or  granite ;  but  the  pure  Shinto  shrine  is  built 
of  plain,  uncolored  wood,  thatched  with  bark  or  covered 
with  shingles,  and  its  torii  are  made  of  trunks  of  fir  with 


THE  RELIGIONS  OF  JAPAN"  43 

the  bark  removed.  The  most  sacred  shrines  in  the  coun- 
try are  those  of  the  Sun-goddess  and  the  Goddess  of  Food 
in  the  province  of  Ise,  which  are  near  each  other  and  are 
known  as  the  "  Two  Great  Divine  Palaces."  They  are 
annually  visited  by  thousands  of  pilgrims  from  all  parts 
of  the  Empire. 

Pure  Shintoism  has  no  images,  but  every  temple  con- 
tains some  object,  which  properly  should  be  within  the 
doors  of  the  actual  shrine,  and  in  it  the  spirit  of  the  deity 
is  supposed  to  reside.  In  the  temple  of  the  Sun-goddess 
this  object  is  the  mirror  that,  according  to  the  tradition, 
was  given  by  the  goddess  to  her  grandson,  Ninigi,  when 
he  was  sent  to  subdue  the  earth,  and  with  reference  to 
which  she  said,  "  Look  upon  this  mirror  as  my  spirit, 
keep  it  in  the  same  house  and  on  the  same  floor  with 
yourself,  and  worship  it  as  if  you  were  worshipping  my 
actual  presence."  All  the  mirrors  in  Shinto  temples  are 
imitations  of  this  one,  but  it  is  Buddhist  influence  that 
has  led  to  their  being  usually  exposed  to  view.  The 
gohei — ''  a  slender  wand  of  unpainted  wood  from  which 
depend  two  long  strips  of  paper  notched  alternately  on 
opposite  sides  " — may  be  seen  wherever  the  gods  are  wor- 
shipped. Originally  offerings  of  white  cloth,  which,  from 
its  preciousness,  was  supposed  to  attract  the  gods,  "  they 
came  in  later  times  to  be  considered  as  the  seats  of  the 
gods,  and  even  the  gods  themselves." 

7.  Priests  and  Worshippers. — Shinto  priests,  except 
when  engaged  in  religious  rites,  do  not  wear  a  distinctive 
dress.  Celibacy  is  not  required,  and  they  are  at  liberty 
to  give  up  the  priesthood.  Girls  and  sometimes  adult  ^ 
women  act  as  priestesses  and  perform  religious  dances. 
The  other  services  consist  chiefly  of  the  recital  of  ancient 
formulas,  and  the  offering  of  rice,  rice-beer,  salt,  fruit, 
vegetables,  and  other  articles  of  food.  The  rites  are  often 
accompanied  by  shrill,  mournful  music  performed  upon 
flutes  and  other  instruments.  Much  stress  is  laid  on  bod- 
ily purification.  Not  only  must  the  priest  bathe  before 
officiating  and  place  a  piece  of  paper  over  his  mouth  when 
presenting  offerings,  but  every  worshipper  before  he  ap- 
proaches the  god  must  wash  his  hands  and  rinse  his 
mouth  with  water  from  the  laver  at  the  entrance  of  the 
temple.     In  the  morning  worshippers  go  into  the  open 


44  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

air  before  their  houses,  bow  their  heads,  clap  their  hands, 
and  adore  the  rising  sun. 

8.  Is  Shintoism  a  Religion f — By  many  persons,  both 
foreign  and  Japanese,  it  is  said  that  Shintoism  is  not  a 
religion,  but  a  system  for  inculcating  loyalty  and  patriot- 
ism. The  ceremonies  at  the  shrines  of  heroes  and  of  the 
Imperial  ancestors  are  declared  not  to  be  worship,  but 
simply  services  in  honor  of  great  men ;  the  offerings  made 
at  these  shrines  being  like  the  wreaths  that  are  placed  on 
the  tomb  of  Napoleon,  or  the  flowers  that  on  Memorial 
Day  are  strewn  over  the  graves  of  American  soldiers. 

Though  this  theory  is  held  by  many  educated  men  who 
join  in  the  Shinto  ceremonies,  and  though  the  rites  may 
ultimately  be  modified  in  accordance  with  such  a  view, 
it  cannot  be  doubted  that  most  frequenters  of  the  shrines 
consider  that  they  there  worship  divine  beings,  and  that 
the  services  are  of  a  religious  nature. 

II.  Buddhism. — Whatever  the  influence  of  Shintoism 
has  been  upon  the  social  and  political  life  of  the  Japanese, 
and  however  closely  it  is  interwoven  with  their  customs 
and  institutions.  Buddhism  has  been  the  most  powerful 
religious  force  in  the  nation. 

1.  Introduction  into  lapan. — Buddhism  had  run  its 
course  of  a  thousand  years  in  India  and  had  been  finally 
overthrown  and  banished  by  the  Brahmins,  before  it 
spread  to  Japan,  whither  it  was  brought  by  way  of  China 
and  Korea.  At  first  it  made  its  way  but  slowly  among 
the  Japanese.  Introduced  into  the  Empire  toward  the 
close  of  the  sixth  century  a.d._,  it  was,  after  some  opposi- 
tion, adopted  by  many  of  the  nobles ;  but  it  did  not  make 
much  headway  among  the  people  until  the  ninth  century, 
when  a  priest  named  Kukai,  better  known  by  his  posthu- 
mous name  of  Kobo  Daishi,  who  had  travelled  in  China, 
tried  to  combine  the  two  religions  by  teaching  that  the 
Shinto  gods  and  heroes  were  manifestations  of  Buddhist 
saints. 

2.  Doctrines. — Japanese  Buddhism  has  assumed  forms 
that  differ  considerably  from  those  now  found  in  China, 
and  still  more  from  the  religion  as  it  formerly  flourished 
in  India.  The  Buddhists  of  Japan  must  not  be  thought 
of  as  a  homogeneous  body.  They  are  divided  into  many 
.widely  varying  sects — shu — and  between  some  of  these 


THE  RELIGIONS   OF  JAPAN  4$ 

there  is  much  antagonism.  A  discussion  of  the  various 
doctrines  would  occupy  too  much  space,  but  mention  may 
be  made  of  a  few  points  in  which  there  is  general  agree- 
ment. 

There  is  no  recognition  of  a  Creator  or  Sovereign  Ruler 
of  the  universe,  but  this  is  said  to  have  been  produced 
spontaneously.  There  is  beHef  in  a  kind  of  transmigra- 
tion. When  a  man  dies  the  good  or  evil  deeds  that  he 
wrought  during  life  will  lead  to  the  production  of  a  new 
being.  If  the  demerits  of  the  person  have  exceeded  his 
merits,  the  new  being  will  be  of  a  lower  grade  than  the 
old;  thus  a  man  may  be  re-born  as  a  woman,  or  even 
as  an  animal  or  plant.  On  the  other  hand,  a  meritorious 
life  leads  to  birth  in  some  higher  class  of  humanity  or  as 
a  blessed  spirit.  All  of  this  is  wrought  by  the  law  of  cause 
and  effect;  and  sooner  or  later  every  evil  deed  will 
yield  its  fruit  of  calamity;  every  good  deed  will  bring 
its  happiness ;  or,  reasoning  in  the  other  direction,  every 
calamity  and  even  every  evil  deed  came  from  something 
in  the  past,  and  so  could  not  be  avoided.  The  succession 
of  birth  and  death  is  an  evil,  and  salvation  from  it  is 
to  be  attained  through  the  enlightenment  that  enables  one 
to  see  the  illusory  nature  of  all  things  and  so  to  cease  from 
all  desire.  Thus  the  enlightened  one  at  last  reaches  *'  Nir- 
vana," a  state  whose  exact  nature  it  is  difficult  to  define 
and  concerning  which  the  opinions  of  different  sects  vary. 

3.  The  Shin  Sect. — The  sect  that  has  the  most  influ- 
ence among  the  common  people  is  the  Shin-shu,  which 
is  an  offshoot  from  the  older  Jodo-shu.  Its  importance 
will  justify  some  account  of  its  teaching,  chiefly  summa- 
rized from  a  paper  by  Mr.  James  Troup,  formerly  the 
British  Consul  at  Kobe.  According  to  Buddhism,  the 
''  unenlightened,"  who  have  not  attained  to  Buddhahood, 
are  subject  to  the  evil  of  birth  and  death,  "  sinking  and 
floating  in  the  sea  of  existence  "  through  ages  measured 
by  millions  of  years ;  and  the  aim  of  all  sects  is  to  obtain 
deliverance  from  the  cycle  of  birth  and  death — in  other 
words,  to  reach  Nirvana.  Thus  far  agreed,  they  differ 
in  regard  to  the  means  of  attaining  this  end.  Those  sects 
which  follow  what  is  called  the  "  Holy  Path  "  seek  deliv- 
erance "  by  the  practice  of  the  moral  and  religious  pre- 
cepts and  prohibitions  of  Buddhism  " — that  is  to  say,  by 
gcxxi  works  and  virtuous  actions. 


4&  JAPAN  AND  ITS  HEGENERATIOI^ 

On  the  other  hand,  those  of  the  "  Pure  Land  " — ^the 
Jodo-shu,  and  its  offshoot  the  Shin-shu — look  upon  this 
way  of  salvation  as  utterly  impossible  for  men  in  the  pres- 
ent age  of  the  world,  this  being,  according  to  Buddhist 
doctrine,  the  "  Period  of  the  Latter  Days  of  the  Law/* 
when  "  the  inferior  capacities  of  men  are  dark,  and  they 
cannot  tread  the  Holy  Path  and  rise  to  perfection."  They 
consequently  seek  deliverance  by  birth  into  the  Pure  Land 
of  Amida  Buddha,  resting  their  faith  and  hope  on  the 
vows  which  this  imaginary  being  of  bygone  ages  is  said 
to  have  made.  The  eighteenth  of  these  vows  is  as  fol- 
lows :  "  If,  when  I  attain  Buddhahood,  any  of  the  living 
beings  in  the  ten  regions,  who  with  sincerity,  having  faith 
and  joy  and  an  ardent  desire  to  be  born  into  My  Country, 
call  My  Name  to  remembrance  ten  times,  should  not  then 
be  born  there,  I  shall  not  accept  enlightenment."  This  is 
interpreted  by  the  Shin-shu  to  mean  that  men  of  all  classes 
and  conditions  and  in  all  ages  of  the  world — whether 
priests  or  laymen,  merchants  or  husbandmen,  whether 
married  or  single,  with  or  without  families,  whether  ab- 
staining from  flesh  and  wine  or  not — if  they  only  put 
forth  the  believing  heart  and  invoke  Amida  Buddha,  after 
this  life  they  will  be  born  in  Heaven — they  will  reach  Nir- 
vana. 

Three  points  of  this  teaching  must  be  noted :  ( i )  Believ- 
ers invoke  Amida  alone.  The  formula  of  the  sect  re- 
peated hundreds  of  times  in  a  day  is  Namu  Amida  Butsu, 
"Hail,  Amida  Buddha."  (2)  The  believing  heart  is  not 
faith  by  one's  own  power,  faith  excited  and  kept  alive 
by  means  of  religious  observances,  but  "  faith  by  the 
power  of  another  " — a  believing  heart  conferred  by  the 
power  of  Amida.  (3)  The  invocation  of  Amida — "the 
action  of  calling  to  remembrance  with  the  living  voice  " 
his  sacred  name — results  from  the  possession  of  a  believ- 
ing heart.  Its  object  is  not  to  obtain  salvation  as  a  re- 
ward, but  to  express  gratitude  for  the  boundless  com- 
passion of  Amida  and  for  the  certainty  of  deliverance  by 
being  born  into  his  Pure  Land. 

4.  Buddhist  Temples. — Whereas  Shinto  shrines  are 
very  simple  in  their  architecture,  Buddhist  temples  are 
usually  massive  and  beautiful  edifices.  They  are  often 
built  in  dark  valleys  or  on  mountain  sides,  and  are  sur.- 


THE  RELIGIONS  OF  JAPAN  4J 

rounded  by  groves  of  ancient  trees.  The  Shin  sect,  how- 
ever, puts  its  temples  in  the  midst  of  the  cities.  Some 
of  the  most  beautiful  places  in  Japan  are  the  groves  and 
gardens  connected  with  Buddhist  temples.  Massive  bells, 
struck  on  the  outside  by  a  piece  of  timber,  suspended  by 
ropes  so  as  to  swing  like  a  battering-ram,  flood  the  air 
with  their  deep,  mellow  tones.  The  altars  within  the 
temples  are  gorgeous  with  gilded  images,  candelabra,  and 
the  other  paraphernalia  of  worship.  The  air  is  heavy  with 
incense.  Priests  in  gorgeous  robes  chant  Sanskrit  pray- 
ers whose  meaning  is  unintelligible  to  the  hearers  and 
even  to  most  of  the  priests  themselves.  In  the  yards  of 
some  temples  are  to  be  seen  wooden  pillars  inscribed  with 
prayers  and  having  a  little  iron  wheel  attached.  The 
wheel  can  easily  be  set  in  motion  by  the  hand,  every  revo- 
lution bringing  as  much  merit  to  the  worshipper  as  though 
he  had  repeated  the  prayer.  Sometimes  there  is  a  large 
octagonal  structure  said  to  contain  all  the  books  of  the 
Buddhist  canon.  This  can  be  made  to  revolve,  and  so 
with  a  little  effort  one  can  gain  all  the  benefit  that  would 
come  from  a  perusal  of  the  volumes.  Some  of  the  most 
popular  temples  have  on  their  grounds  a  number  of  build- 
ings occupied  by  shops,  tea-houses,  theatres,  peep-shows, 
etc. 

5.  Buddhist  Priests. — Priests,  monks,  and  nuns,  of  all 
grades,  abound  in  Japan.  In  Japanese  history,  romance, 
drama,  and  art,  as  in  those  of  Europe,  the  monk  and  nun 
are  staple  characters ;  and  as  in  the  West,  so  in  the  East, 
their  character  and  reputation  vary  greatly.  In  medi- 
aeval Japan  the  monks  were  not  seldom  the  sole  possessors 
of  scholarship  and  the  most  civilizing  agency  in  the  com- 
munity. The  sciences  of  astronomy  and  mathematics, 
the  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture,  were  cultivated  in  the 
monasteries.  Many  of  them  took  an  important  part  in 
politics.  Some  of  the  temples  were  at  that  time  very 
much  like  military  camps,  and  the  priest  often  wore  ar- 
mor under  his  robes.  One  Emperor,  who  was  congratu- 
lated upon  his  power,  said  that  there  remained  three 
things  that  he  could  not  control :  the  waters  of  the  Kamo 
River,  which  sometimes  overflowed  its  banks ;  the  throw 
of  the  dice ;  and  the  turbulent  priests  of  Mt.  Hiei,  near 
Kyoto.    Even  in  modern  times  the  priests  have  had  con- 


48  JAP  AM  AND  ITS  REGENERATION' 

siderable  political  influence,  and  especially  those  of  Shin- 
shu  have  compelled  the  government  to  modify  its  policy 
rather  than  to  ofTend  such  a  powerful  sect. 

6.  Persecution  by  Buddhists. — It  is  sometimes  asserted 
that  Buddhism  has  never  exhibited  a  persecuting  spirit, 
but  such  has  not  been  the  case  in  Japan.  When  the  priest 
Nichiren  in  the  thirteenth  century  founded  a  new  sect 
that  bears  his  name,  a  host  of  enemies  rose  against  him 
and  secured  his  banishment.  Through  their  efforts  he 
was  condemned  to  be  beheaded,  and  was  saved,  as  his  fol- 
lowers believe,  by  a  miracle.  The  sect  has  ever  since 
had  to  contend  against  the  enmity  of  the  others,  though 
its  own  bigotry  furnishes  some  excuse  for  this  opposi- 
tion. In  recent  years  there  have  been  in  some  sections 
of  the  country  excited  meetings  to  denounce  the  belief 
of  the  Nichiren-shu  as  not  being  true  Buddhism. 

The  Jesuit  missionaries  of  the  sixteenth  century  soon 
found  the  Buddhist  priests  bitterly  arrayed  against  them 
and  their  believers.  Unfortunately,  as  soon  as  the  Chris- 
tians gained  power  they  showed  as  much  of  the  spirit 
of  persecution  and  perhaps  more  than  that  which  had 
thus  far  assailed  them.  The  Buddhists  had  no  small  part' 
in  exciting  the  suspicion  of  the  government  against  Chris- 
tianity and  in  the  movements  for  driving  it  from  the  land. 
Afterward  the  Buddhist  priests  exerted  themselves  to 
search  out  secret  adherents  of  the  hated  doctrine  in  order 
to  secure  their  imprisonment  or  exile.  In  recent  years 
the  priests  have  brought  their  power  to  bear  against  the 
spread  of  Christianity.  They  have  found  many  ways  to 
annoy  believers  and  sometimes  have  stirred  up  their  pa- 
rishioners to  deeds  of  violence.  In  many  places  they  have 
induced  people  to  sign  an  agreement  that  they  will  not 
have  any  social  or  business  relations  with  Christians. 
This  has  sometimes  gone  so  far  that  the  latter  have  been 
forbidden  to  draw  water  from  the  village  wells. 

III.  Confucianism. — Perhaps  Confucianism  deserves 
even  less  than  Shintoism  to  be  reckoned  as  a  religion. 
It  is  more  properly  a  system  of  ethical  and  political  phi- 
losophy. Confucius  himself  refused  to  declare  any  opin- 
ion about  the  gods  or  concerning  the  future  life.  As  de- 
veloped by  some  of  his  commentators,  the  system  has 
taken  on  doctrines  and  ideas  that  are  more  closely  re- 
lated to  religion.    It  has  certainly  modified  the  religious 


THE  RELIGIONS   OF  JAPAN  49 

thinking  of  the  Japanese,  has  been  combined  with  other 
systems  to  form  new  sects,  and  has  been  with  many  peo- 
ple the  only  religion  professed.  Like  Buddhism,  Confu- 
cianism probably  made  its  first  entrance  to  Japan  by  way 
of  Korea.  Its  ethics  are  based  upon  the  "  five  relations  " : 
of  lord  and  retainer,  father  and  son,  husband  and  wife, 
elder  and  younger  brother,  friend  and  friend.  As  a  re- 
ligion it  is  pantheistic.  Though  the  thought  of  Japan  has 
been  largely  shaped  by  its  teaching,  Confucianism  as  a 
system  is  now  regarded  with  but  little  reverence.  The 
Chinese  Classics,  which  were  its  text-books,  are  much 
neglected;  for  Japan  feels  that  China  is  no  longer  fitted 
to  be  her  teacher.  Nevertheless  the  influence  that  has 
been  exerted  by  Confucianism  in  the  past  will  long  modify 
the  whole  philosophical,  political,  ethical,  and  religious 
thought  of  the  land. 

IV.  Other  Religious  Systems. — There  are  various  mi- 
nor sects,  many  of  them  being  of  recent  origin,  which  have 
considerable  influence  over  the  common  people.  Most  of 
them  are  combinations  in  varied  proportions  of  elements 
derived  from  the  three  systems  already  mentioned.  In 
some  cases  they  may  have  been  affected  by  the  Christian 
doctrines  taught  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  which  have 
not  been  wholly  forgotten  by  the  people.  Two  of  these 
religions  may  be  mentioned  as  specimens  of  the  class. 

I.  Kurozumi. — This  is  reckoned  as  a  sect  of  Shinto. 
Kurozumi,  its  founder,  was  born  in  1780  and  died  in  1850. 
When  about  thirty-five  years  old  he  was  brought  near  to 
death's  door  by  consumption.  He  was  led  to  believe  that 
the  cause  of  his  disease  was  that  his  soul  had  become  filled 
with  the  gloomy  negative  spirit,  and  this  he  determined 
to  expel  by  imbibing  the  cheerful  positive  spirit  that  comes 
from  the  sun.  He  commenced  to  worship  the  rising  sun, 
at  the  same  time  inhaling  deep  breaths  of  the  fresh  air 
lighted  by  its  rays.  Soon  his  health  and  spirits  were  re- 
stored;  and  he  commenced  to  heal  and  teach  others. 

The  success  of  the  sect  is  largely  attributable  to  the 
belief  that  its  leaders  are  able  to  cure  diseases  through 
faith  accompanied  by  certain  rites.  At  this  point  it  bears 
a  striking  resemblance  to  many  theories  found  in  Western 
lands.  The  Sun-god  is  the  chief  object  of  worship.  Man's 
soul  is  regarded  as  an  emanation  from  this  god,  and  so  as 


50  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

being  holy  at  birth.  By  intercourse  with  other  men  and 
through  the  temptations  of  the  flesh  a  man  becomes  cor- 
rupt. Righteousness  is  to  be  regained  by  conquering  self- 
ishness ;  or,  as  otherwise  expressed,  by  freeing  one's  self 
from  evil  desire.  When  men,  through  divine  aid,  are  freed 
from  sin,  they  become  one  with  the  Sun-god.  Cheerful- 
ness, thankfulness  for  the  blessings  received  from  the 
gods,  faith,  freedom  from  evil  desires,  and  self-restraint 
are  the  virtues  most  emphasized. 

2.  Tenrikyo. — The  name  signifies  "  Doctrine  of  the 
Heavenly  Reason."  The  sect  that  follows  this  teaching 
has  during  the  last  twenty  years  had  a  remarkable  growth, 
and  claims  to  number  over  five  million  adherents.  Its 
founder  was  a  peasant  woman  who  was  born  in  1798. 
When  forty  years  old  she  fell  into  a  trance,  during  which 
she  received,  as  she  afterward  declared,  revelations  from 
the  gods,  who  chose  her  to  give  new  light  to  mankind. 
One  feature  of  the  message  was  that  the  relation  between 
the  gods  and  men  is  like  that  between  parents  and  chil- 
dren. The  soul  of  man  is  an  emanation  from  the  gods, 
to  whom  it  returns  after  death.  Sin  and  disease  are  caused 
by  impurity  of  the  heart.  It  is  said  that,  while  the  found- 
er's teaching  recognized  many  gods,  it  had  a  tendency 
toward  monotheism.  She  left  no  writings  except  some 
hymns  whose  meaning  is  not  very  plain  to  outsiders,  and 
the  doctrines  of  the  sect  seem  to  be  a  strange  jumble. 

Whether  or  not  she  knew  anything  of  Christian  ideas, 
it  is  certain  that  many  preachers  of  the  present  day  do 
not  hesitate  to  incorporate  them  into  their  sermons.  The 
missionary  spirit  of  the  believers  is  an  interesting  feature. 
Even  jinrikisha-pullers  and  other  uneducated  men  engage 
in  preaching  and  other  means  of  propagating  the  doctrine. 
Men  of  means  sometimes  give  over  their  whole  property 
for  the  use  of  the  sect.  There  are  numerous  meetings 
with  sermons,  singing  of  hymns,  and  dancing.  As  with 
the  Kurozumi  sect,  much  is  made  of  faith-healing,  and 
stories  of  wonderful  cures  are  abundant.  The  sect  is  rec- 
ognized by  the  government,  but  is  bitterly  attacked  by 
the  Buddhists.  Its  enemies  charge  that  the  meetings  are 
often  attended  with  great  immorality.  There  is  some 
reason  for  thinking  that  the  sect  has  passed  the  zenith 
of  its  power  and  that  the  number  of  adherents  is  now 
diminishing. 


V 

The  Jesuit  Missions 

I.  Europeans  Become  Acquainted  with  Japan "  Zi- 

pangu,"  says  Marco  Polo,  ''  is  an  island  toward  the  east, 
in  the  high  seas,  1,500  miles  distant  from  the  Continent, 
and  a  very  great  island  it  is.  The  people  are  white,  civ- 
ilized, and  well-favored.  They  are  idolators,  and  they 
are  dependent  on  nobody,  and  I  can  tell  you  the  quantity 
of  gold  they  have  is  endless."  These  words,  written  by 
the  old  Venetian  traveller  six  centuries  ago,  however  in- 
accurate, first  revealed  to  Europe  the  existence  of  Japan. 
Marco  Polo  spent  seventeen  years,  1275- 1292,  at  the  court 
of  Kublai  Khan ;  and  there  he  heard  of  the  Land  of  the 
Rising  Sun,  which  the  great  Tatar  chieftain  had  tried 
in  vain  to  conquer,  his  fleet  being  utterly  destroyed  by 
the  winds  and  waves.  Marco  Polo's  book  appeared  in 
1298.  Two  hundred  years  later  it  found  an  ardent  stu- 
dent in  Christopher  Columbus;  and  there  is  little  doubt 
that,  when  the  discoverer  of  America  sailed  out  into  the 
West,  it  was  Japan  that  he  sought;  but  not  until  1542 
did  any  European  reach  Japan,  and  then  it  was  not  across 
the  Atlantic,  but  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  and 
it  was  not  a  Spaniard,  but  a  Portuguese,  Mendez  Pinto, 
whose  vessel  was  driven  thither  by  stress  of  weather. 
Japanese  historians  note  that  year  as  the  date  of  the  first 
appearance  of  foreigners,  Christianity,  and  fire-arms. 

II.  The  Missionaries. — i.  Xavier. — A  young  Japa- 
nese named  Anjiro,  wandered  to  India  in  one  of  the 
Portuguese  vessels  and  there  met  Francis  Xavier,  the 
famous  Jesuit  missionary.  Having  accepted  Christian- 
ity, he  became  a  student  in  the  college  that  had  been  es- 
tabUshed  at  Goa.  Xavier  became  much  interested  in 
the  young  man  and  in  his  country.  When  he  asked  Anjiro 
what  prospects  Christianity  would  have  in  Japan,  the 

51 


52  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

latter  answered :  "  My  people  would  not  immediately  as- 
sent to  what  might  be  said  to  them,  but  they  would  inves- 
tigate this  religion  by  a  multitude  of  questions,  and,  above 
all,  by  observing  whether  your  conduct  agreed  with  your 
words.  This  done,  the  daimyos,  the  nobility,  and  the 
people  would  flock  to  Christ,  being  a  nation  which  always 
follows  reason  as  a  guide."  Notwithstanding  the  op- 
position of  his  friends  and  the  great  dangers  that  at- 
tended such  an  undertaking,  Xavier  determined  to  go 
to  Japan. 

He  was  accompanied  by  another  priest,  a  lay  brother, 
Anjiro,  and  two  servants  who  had  come  with  the  latter 
to  India.  After  various  adventures  they  landed,  in  Au- 
gust, 1549,  at  Kagoshima,  a  port  in  the  southern  part  of 
Kyushu.  Here  they  were  at  first  kindly  received.  Xavier 
relates  that  in  an  interview  with  the  Prince  of  the  prov- 
ince Anjiro  "  showed  a  beautiful  picture  he  had  brought 
from  India,  of  the  Blessed  Mary  and  the  Child  Jesus 
sitting  in  her  lap.  When  the  Prince  looked  upon  it,  he 
was  overwhelmed  with  emotion,  and,  falling  on  his  knees, 
he  very  devoutly  worshipped  it,  and  commanded  all  pres- 
ent to  do  the  same."  Xavier  visited  several  cities  and 
made  his  way  as  far  as  Kyoto,  but  the  civil  commotions 
of  the  time  had  brought  the  capital  into  such  a  state  of 
turmoil  as  was  unfavorable  for  his  work.  In  some  other 
cities  he  was  well  received.  The  same  restless  nature 
that  had  prevented  him  from  remaining  long  in  any  one 
part  of  India  urged  him  on  to  new  enterprises,  and  he 
remained  only  about  two  years  in  Japan.  He  departed 
with  the  intention  of  carrying  Christianity  to  China,  but 
died  on  a  little  island  near  the  coast  of  that  empire.  We 
cannot  but  admire  the  zeal  and  devotion  of  Xavier;  yet, 
had  he  not  been  followed  by  others  who  were  willing  to 
labor  steadily  and  persistently,  little  would  have  been  ac- 
complished by  his  visit  to  Japan. 

2.  Xavier's  Successors. — Those  who  had  accompanied 
Xavier  to  Japan  remained  after  his  departure,  and  were 
joined  by  others  whose  zeal  had  been  aroused  by  the 
glowing  letters  sent  back  to  Europe.  To  them  was  grant- 
ed the  joy  of  reaping  an  extraordinary  harvest.  Within 
five  years  Christian  communities  were  rising  in  every  di- 
rection.   At  the  end  of  thirty  years  the  converts  numbered 


THE  JESUIT  MISSIONS  53 

150,000  and  the  churches  200.  The  Japanese  themselves 
give  two  millions  as  the  figure  ultimately  reached,  but 
the  Jesuits  do  not  claim  that,  and  perhaps  half  a  million 
may  be  nearer  the  number. 

III.  Conditions  That  Aided  the  Jesuits — i.  Relig- 
ious.— In  many  respects  the  time  at  which  the  Jesuits  came 
to  Japan  was  favorable  for  their  work.  Shintoism  had 
Httle  influence  with  the  people.  Buddhism,  with  all  its 
external  splendor,  had  lost  most  of  the  religious  fervor 
and  life  it  had  once  possessed.  The  Jesuit  priests  gave 
the  Japanese  all  that  the  Buddhist  priests  had  given  them 
— gorgeous  altars,  imposing  processions,  dazzling  vest- 
ments, and  all  the  scenic  display  of  a  sensuous  worship — 
but  added  to  these  a  freshness  and  fervor  that  quickly 
captivated  the  imaginative  and  impressionable  people. 
The  Buddhist  preacher — unless  of  the  Shin  sect — prom- 
ised heavenly  rest,  such  as  it  was,  only  after  many  trans- 
migrations involving  many  weary  lives.  The  Jesuit 
preacher  promised  immediate  entrance  into  paradise  after 
death  to  all  who  received  baptism.  There  was  little  in 
the  Buddhist  paraphernalia  that  needed  to  be  changed, 
much  less  abandoned.  The  images  of  Buddha,  with  a 
sHght  application  of  the  chisel,  served  for  images  of 
Christ.  Each  Buddhist  saint  found  his  counterpart  in 
Roman  Christianity ;  and  the  roadside  shrines  of  Kwan- 
on,  the  Goddess  of  Mercy,  were  rededicated  to  Mary. 
Temples,  altars,  bells,  holy-water  vessels,  censers,  rosaries, 
all  were  ready  and  could  be  easily  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  new  religion.  To  Japanese,  accustomed  to  the 
thought  of  changing  from  one  sect  to  another,  this  new^ 
change  seemed  slight.  Those  who  have  seen  both  rituals 
often  wonder  whether  Buddhism  is  a  child  of  Romanism, 
Romanism  a  child  of  Buddhism,  or  whether  both  did  not 
have  some  common  origin. 

2.  Political. — There  was  also  a  political  cause  for  the 
success  of  the  Jesuits.  Nobunaga,  who  possessed  power 
similar  to  that  of  the  Shoguns,  though  he  never  took  the 
title,  hated  the  Buddhists  and  openly  favored  the  mis- 
sionaries, thinking  to  make  them  a  tool  for  his  own  de- 
signs. Among  the  early  converts  were  several  men  of 
high  rank  who  used  their  influence  and  power  in  favor 
of  the  new  religion.     In  1583  four  nobles  were  sent  by 


54  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

the  Christian  daimyos  of  Kyushu  to  Europe  as  an  em- 
bassy to  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  to  declare  themselves  vas- 
sals of  the  Holy  See;  and  at  the  same  time  the  subjects 
of  these  same  daimyos  were  ordered  to  embrace  Chris- 
tianity or  go  into  exile.  The  decree  w^as  carried  out  v^ith 
great  cruelty.  The  spirit  of  the  Inquisition  was  intro- 
duced into  Japan.  Buddhist  priests  were  put  to  death,  and 
their  monasteries  burnt  to  the  ground.  The  details  are 
given,  with  full  approval,  by  the  Jesuit  Charlevoix  in 
his  "  Histoire  du  Christianisme  au  Japon."  Take  one 
passage  as  a  specimen:  *'  In  1577,  the  lord  of  the  island 
of  Amakusa  issued  his  proclamation  by  which  his  subjects 
— whether  priests  or  gentlemen,  merchants  or  tradesmen 
— were  required  either  to  turn  Christians,  or  to  leave  the 
country  the  very  next  day.  They  almost  all  submitted 
and  received  baptism,  so  that  in  a  short  time  there  were 
more  than  twenty  churches  in  the  kingdom.  God  wrought 
miracles  to  confirm  the  faithful  in  their  belief." 

IV.  Persecution  of  the  Christians i.  By    Hideyoshi. 

— Nobunaga's  successor,  the  famous  Hideyoshi,  was  led 
to  suspect  that  the  foreign  priests  were  plotting  against 
Japan.  A  Portuguese  sea-captain  was  reported  to  hav^ 
said,  "  The  King,  my  master,  begins  by  sending  priests 
who  win  over  the  people ;  and  when  this  is  done,  he  de- 
spatches his  troops  to  join  the  native  Christians,  and  the 
conquest  is  easy  and  complete."  In  1587  Hideyoshi  issued 
a  decree  of  expulsion  against  the  priests.  It  was  not  so 
easy  to  get  rid  of  them.  Closing  their  churches,  they 
withdrew  from  public  notice  for  awhile,  but  secretly 
continued  their  work  as  actively  as  ever.  The  Spanish 
Government  had  been  jealous  of  the  monopoly  of  trade 
enjoyed  by  the  Portuguese,  and  the  governor  of  the  Philip- 
pines sent  an  embassy  to  Hideyoshi  seeking  permission 
to  trade  with  Japan.  In  the  embassy  were  some  Francis- 
cans, who  came  in  the  guise  of  envoys  and  under  the  ex- 
press condition  that  they  were  not  to  teach  their  religion. 
Notwithstanding  this  and  the  fact  that  the  Pope  had  given 
to  the  Jesuits  the  exclusive  privilege  of  conducting  mis- 
sions in  Japan,  the  Franciscans  soon  commenced  to  preach 
openly  in  the  streets,  and  their  activity  led  to  new  perse- 
cution. In  1597  twenty-six  persons,  including  six  of  the 
Franciscan  fathers,  were  crucified  together  at  Nagasaki. 


THE  JESUIT  MISSIONS  5$ 

2.  By  leyasu. — Hideyoshi  died  in  1598,  and  in  the 
struggle  for  power  that  followed,  the  Christian  nobles 
took  the  side  of  his  young  son;  but  the  battle  of  Seki- 
gahara,  as  already  noticed,  decided  the  conflict  in  favor 
of  leyasu.  For  a  time,  however,  the  Church  enjoyed  com- 
parative peace  and  prosperity,  and  leyasu  himself  re- 
ceived the  Bishop  and  other  ecclesiastics  with  some  de- 
gree of  favor.  A  number  of  Dominican  and  Augustinian 
fathers,  disregarding,  as  the  Franciscans  had,  the  mo- 
nopoly that  the  Pope  had  given  to  the  Jesuits,  came 
to  the  country.  The  quarrels  that  broke  out  among  the 
different  orders  proved  a  source  of  weakness.  In  1614, 
leyasu,  believing  that  he  had  discovered  a  plot  of  the  na- 
tive Christians  and  foreigners  for  overthrowing  his  power, 
issued  a  decree  in  which  he  denounced  the  missionaries 
as  enemies  of  the  gods,  of  Japan,  and  of  the  Buddhas. 
All  members  of  religious  orders,  whether  natives  or  for- 
eigners, were  to  be  sent  out  of  the  country,  and  their 
converts  were  commanded  to  recant.  Three  hundred  per- 
sons were  at  one  time  deported  to  Macao.  Some  Chris- 
tians were  sent  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  where  their 
descendants  still  live.  Fire  and  sword  were  freely  used 
during  the  following  years  against  the  Christians. 

The  unhappy  victims  met  torture  and  death  with  a  forti- 
tude that  compels  our  admiration.  They  were  crucified, 
burnt  at  the  stake,  buried  alive,  torn  limb  from  limb,  and 
put  to  unspeakable  torments.  Japanese  accounts  speak 
of  many  who  apostatized;  but  all  agree  that  multitudes 
remained  unshaken.  One  Jesuit  priest,  Christopher  Fer- 
reyra,  after  enduring  horrible  tortures,  was  at  last  hung 
by  his  feet  in  such  a  way  that  his  head  was  in  a  hole  in 
the  ground,  from  which  light  and  air  were  nearly  ex- 
cluded. His  right  hand  was  left  loose,  that  with  it  he 
might  make  the  prescribed  sign  of  recantation.  He  hung 
for  four  hours,  it  is  said,  before  yielding.  He  was  at  once 
released  and  compelled  to  become  a  Japanese  inquisitor 
to  consign  other  Christians  to  torture  and  death.  Roman 
Catholic  historians  estimate  that  over  a  thousand  persons, 
European  and  Japanese,  connected  with  the  four  orders — 
Jesuit,  Franciscan,  Dominican,  and  Augustinian — togeth- 
er with  200,000  of  the  laity,  perished  during  these  perse- 
cutions. 


$6  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

3.  Revolt  of  the  Christians. — These  persecutions,  to- 
gether with  the  misgovernment  of  certain  feudal  lords, 
led  the  Christians  of  a  section  of  Kyushu  to  strike  a  last 
desperate  blow  for  freedom.  In  1638  they  fortified  an 
old  castle  in  Shimabara  and  raised  the  flag  of  revolt.  Af- 
ter a  two-months'  siege  they  were  compelled  to  surrender, 
and  thirty-seven  thousand  were  massacred.  This  was 
their  expiring  effort.  The  Christianity  that  Rome  had 
presented  to  the  Japanese  appeared  to  have  become  ex- 
tinct. It  is  said  that  over  the  ruins  of  their  castle  was 
placed  a  stone  with  this  inscription :  "  So  long  as  the 
sun  shall  warm  the  earth  let  no  Christian  be  so  bold  as 
to  come  to  Japan;  and  let  all  know  that  the  King  of 
Spain  himself,  or  the  Christians'  God,  or  the  Great  God 
of  all,  if  he  violate  this  command,  shall  pay  for  it  with  his 
head."  It  has  been  thought  by  some  that  by  "  the  Chris- 
tians' God  "  was  intended  either  Christ  or  the  Pope. 

4.  Christianity  not  Wholly  Destroyed. — After  these 
events,  as  Dr.  Griffis  says,  the  name  of  Christ  came  to  be 
regarded  as  *'  the  synonym  of  sorcery,  sedition,  and  all 
that  was  hostile  to  the  purity  of  the  home  and  the  peace 
of  society.  .  .  .  Christianity  was  remembered  only 
as  an  awful  scar  on  the  national  annals.  No  vestiges  were 
supposed  to  be  left  of  it,  and  no  knowledge  of  its  tenets 
was  held,  save  by  a  very  few  scholars  in  Yedo,  trained 
experts,  who  were  kept,  as  a  sort  of  spiritual  bloodhounds, 
to  scent  out  the  adherents  of  the  accursed  creed." 

Yet  the  historical  facts  show  that  it  was  not  wholly 
stamped  out.  A  special  police  commission  was  organized, 
called  "  The  Christian  Inquiry,"  and  every  year  the  Bud- 
dhist priest  had  to  report  to  the  commissioners  that  no 
Christians  were  to  be  found  among  his  parishioners.  At 
the  entrance  to  every  city  and  village  was  a  place  where 
certain  laws  were  posted,  among  them  being  one  that 
prohibited  belief  in  the  hated  religion.  High  rewards 
were  offered  to  those  giving  information  against  those 
who  violated  this  law.  Suspected  persons  were  compelled 
to  trample  on  pictures  or  images  of  Christ.  In  some  parts 
of  the  country  it  was  the  custom  for  the  whole  popula- 
tion once  a  year  to  take  part  in  the  ceremony  of  trampling 
on  a  cross.  Now  and  then  a  stray  Christian  would  be 
detected  and  sent  into  exile.     As  late  as  1829  six  men 


THE  JESUIT  MISSIONS  57 

and  an  old  woman  are  said  to  have  been  crucified  at 
Osaka.  Yet,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  later  chapter,  it  was 
found,  when  the  country  was  re-opened  to  foreigners,  that 
through  the  long  years  many  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Christians  retained  a  knowledge  of  the  faith  as  it  had 
been  handed  down  from  one  {generation  to  another. 


VI 
The  Locking  and  the  Unlocking 

1.  A  Closed  Nation. — i.  Results  of  Foreign  Inter- 
course.— For  two  hundred  and  thirty  years  Japan  was 
closed  to  the  outer  world.  By  the  century  of  intercourse 
with  European  nations  she  had  gained  the  knowledge 
of  gunpowder,  firearms,  and  tobacco,  the  enrichment  of 
her  language  by  a  few  foreign  words,  some  additions  to 
her  familiar  forms  of  disease,  and  an  inveterate  hatred 
of  Christianity.  Content  with  these  acquirements  and  de- 
siring no  more,  she  retired  from  public  gaze. 

2.  The  Doors  Closed. — In  1624  all  foreigners  except 
Dutch  and  Chinese  were  banished  from  Japan.  At  the 
same  time,  the  Japanese  were  forbidden  to  leave  the  coun- 
try, and  all  vessels  fitted  for  long  voyages  were  destroyed. 
It  is  manifest  that  these  edicts  were  directed  especially 
against  communication  with  Roman  Catholic  nations. 
The  English  were  not  in  question.  Their  share  in  the 
trade  had  been  small.  The  first  Englishman  to  enter  the 
country.  Will  Adams,  did  not  land  until  fifty  years  after 
Xavier.  He  came  as  the  pilot  of  a  Dutch  fleet,  and,  be- 
coming the  trusted  adviser  of  the  Shogun  leyasu,  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  the  country.  The  first  English 
ship  reached  Japan  only  twelve  years  before  the  decree 
of  expulsion,  and  ere  the  decree  was  issued  the  English 
traders  had  left  the  country. 

3.  The  Dutch  Merchants. — Even  the  Dutch  had  to  sub- 
mit to  very  humiliating  terms.  They  were  confined  to 
a  little  artificial  islet,  600  feet  by  200,  in  Nagasaki  harbor, 
called  Deshima,  and  a  strong  Japanese  guard  always  held 
the  small  bridge  connecting  it  with  the  mainland.  Only 
one  ship  was  allowed  to  come  to  this  settlement  in  six 
months,  and  when  it  arrived  two  water-gates  were  opened 
for  its  admission,  which  remained  closed  at  all  other  times. 

58 


THE  LOCKING  AND  THE   UNLOCKING  59 

Once  in  four  years  the  Dutch  Commissioner  had  to  go 
to  Yedo,  bearing  the  costly  gifts  required  as  tribute  from 
the  foreigners. 

Why  were  the  Dutch  exempted  from  the  laws  that  shut 
out  other  Europeans  ?  In  the  first  place,  the  government 
considered  that  it  owed  to  them  the  discovery  of  the 
Jesuit  plots.  One  of  their  vessels  intercepted  a  letter  to 
the  King  of  Portugal  asking  for  troops  to  effect  a  revo- 
lution, and  they  eagerly  seized  the  opportunity  to  discredit 
their  Portuguese  rivals.  Roman  Catholic  writers  claim 
that  this  letter  was  forged.  In  the  second  place,  the 
Dutch  carefully  abstained  from  all  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity, as  is  acknowledged  by  their  own  historian 
Kaempfer.  One  of  them,  being  taxed  with  his  belief,  re- 
plied, "  No,  I  am  not  a  Christian ;  I  am  a  Dutchman.'* 
It  is  averred  that  they  even  consented  to  trample  on  the 
cross. 

II.  Attempts  to  Open  Japan.— i.  At  long  intervals  ef- 
forts were  made  by  different  nations  to  gain  an  entrance 
into  Japan.  A  vessel  sent  by  Charles  II.  was  not  allowed 
to  trade  because  the  Dutch  had  informed  the  Japanese 
authorities  that  Charles  had  married  the  daughter  of  the 
King  of  Portugal.  Russia  made  efforts  to  get  into  Japan 
at  the  beginning  of  this  century,  but  without  success; 
afterward  she  seized  some  of  the  northern  islands  that 
had  been  part  of  the  Japanese  Empire.  Various  other 
attempts  to  lead  the  country  out  of  its  seclusion  were 
made  by  America  and  by  European  nations. 

2.  One  of  the  most  interesting  efforts  to  this  end  was 
a  private  enterprise  in  the  year  1837.  Several  Japanese 
sailors  who  had  been  wrecked  and  rescued  were  sent  to 
China,  where  they  came  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Giitzlaff, 
a  German  missionary.  It  was  determined  to  make  an  ef- 
fort to  return  the  men  to  their  homes,  it  being  believed 
that  the  nature  of  the  errand  would  secure  a  courteous 
reception  and  that  thus  an  opening  might  be  made  for 
trade  and  missions.  An  American  firm  in  China  fitted 
out  the  ship  Morrison,  and  everything  possible  was  done 
to  insure  a  peaceful  reception.  Much  to  the  disappoint- 
ment of  all,  the  vessel  was  fired  upon  in  the  two  ports 
that  it  entered ;  for  the  Japanese  were  averse  to  having 
anything  to  do  with  foreigners,  and  their  laws  forbade 


60  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

the  return  of  any  of  their  own  people  who  had  once  left 
the  country. 

III.  The  Opening.—i.  The  American  Expedition. — It 
was  reserved  for  the  United  States  to  open  the  doors  that 
had  so  long  been  closed.  On  July  8,  1853,  the  American 
squadron,  commanded  by  Commodore  Perry,  anchored 
off  Uraga,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Yedo.  A  Japanese 
official  went  off  to  the  flagship,  but  the  Commodore  was 
determined  to  negotiate  only  with  authorities  of  the  high- 
est rank,  and  the  official  was  informed  that  the  President 
of  the  United  States  had  sent  a  letter  for  the  Emperor  of 
Japan,  but  that  it  could  be  delivered  only  to  a  functionary 
properly  qualified  to  receive  it.  He  replied  that  the  laws 
of  Japan  prohibited  any  communication  with  foreigners 
except  at  the  port  of  Nagasaki,  and  that  the  squadron 
must  go  there.  This  was  exactly  what  Commodore  Perry 
did  not  mean  to  do.  To  go  away  hundreds  of  miles  from 
Yedo  and  humbly  knock  at  the  little  wicket-gate  at  which 
so  many  indignities  had  been  inflicted  on  the  Dutch  would 
entirely  defeat  his  purpose.  Ultimately  the  quiet  but  reso- 
lute courtesy  of  the  Commodore  prevailed,  and  a  noble 
of  high  rank  was  sent  to  receive  the  letter.  The  Commo- 
dore was  content  to  take  one  step  at  a  time,  and,  having 
delivered  the  document  with  all  possible  ceremony,  he 
sailed  away  from  Japan. 

Eight  months  afterward  he  came  back  again  with  a 
more  powerful  squadron  than  before,  to  conclude  a  for- 
mal treaty.  Lengthened  negotiations  followed  with  the 
officers  of  the  Shogun,  whom  the  Americans  supposed  to 
be  the  "  temporal  Emperor."  The  Japanese  strove  hard 
to  confine  their  new  friends  to  Nagasaki,  but  nothing 
would  move  the  Commodore  from  his  purpose,  and  on 
March  31,  1854,  a  treaty  was  duly  signed  and  sealed, 
which  opened  two  ports — viz. :  Shimoda,  100  miles  south 
of  Yedo,  and  Hakodate,  in  Yezo — to  American  trade. 
Shimoda  was  soon  afterward  destroyed  by  an  earthquake, 
and  a  few  years  later  Yokohama  was  opened  instead. 

2.  Treaties  with  European  Nations. — Other  nations 
were  not  slow  to  claim  similar  advantages,  but  it  was 
only  under  pressure  that  the  Japanese  granted  them. 
Russia  succeeded  in  getting  a  treaty  signed,  as  did  Hol- 
land in  procuring  the  withdrawal  of  some  of  the  restric- 


THE  LOCKING  AND  THE   UNLOCKING  6 1 

tions  under  which  her  merchants  had  labored  at  Deshima. 
A  treaty  was  also  negotiated  by  a  representative  of  Great 
Britain,  but  it  was  never  ratified.  All  concessions  were 
at  this  time  refused  to  France  and  Portugal,  obviously 
because  they  were  Roman  Catholic  nations. 

3.  The  Treaties  of  1858. — The  early  treaties,  though 
giving  foreigners  but  few  privileges,  opened  the  way  for 
gaining  still  more.  In  1858  Townsend  Harris,  represent- 
ing the  United  States,  succeeded,  after  long  and  patient 
labors,  in  negotiating  a  new  treaty,  which  was  followed 
a  few  weeks  later  by  a  similar  one  with  England,  arranged 
by  Lord  Elgin.  These  treaties  for  the  first  time  permitted 
citizens  of  the  nations  concerned  to  reside  in  certain  ports 
of  Japan.  Hakodate,  Kanagawa,  and  Nagasaki  were  to 
be  opened  to  them  in  1859,  while  Hiogo,  Osaka,  and  Nii- 
gata  were  to  be  available  at  a  later  date.  Other  important 
concessions  were  granted.  These  treaties  were  followed 
by  similar  ones  with  France  and  other  nations. 

4.  Attacks  upon  Foreigners. — Thus  far  bloodless  vic- 
tories seemed  to  have  been  gained,  but  not  without  blood- 
shed were  the  fruits  reaped.  As  soon  as  the  ports  were 
opened  for  residence,  merchants  hastened  to  commence 
business,  and  the  Japanese,  both  rulers  and  people,  ap- 
peared eager  for  friendly  and  mutually  profitable  inter- 
course ;  but  the  turbulent  samurai  resented  the  admission 
of  strangers  to  their  sacred  soil,  and  a  succession  of  out- 
rages kept  the  foreign  communities  in  a  state  of  alarm 
for  several  years.  In  particular,  the  American  Secretary 
of  Legation  was  assassinated  in  1861 ;  in  the  same  year 
a  desperate  assault  was  made  on  the  house  occupied  by 
the  British  Legation,  some  members  of  which  were  badly 
wounded ;  in  1862  an  English  gentleman,  Mr.  Richard- 
son, was  murdered  on  the  highroad ;  in  1863  some  new 
buildings  for  the  British  Legation  were  blown  up,  and  in 
1864  two  English  officers  were  assassinated  at  Kamakura. 

5.  The  Bombardment  of  Kagoshima  and  Shimonoseki. 
— The  parties  concerned  in  these  outrages  were  in  some 
cases  punished  by  the  Shogun's  government,  and  indem- 
nities paid ;  but  for  Mr.  Richardson's  death  it  disclaimed 
responsibility,  as  the  murderers  belonged  to  the  powerful 
Satsuma  clan,  whose  regent  refused  reparation  and  set 
the  Shogun  at  defiance.     The  British  fleet  accordingly 


62  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

sailed  to  the  south  end  of  Kyushu  and  bombarded  the 
chief  city  of  Satsuma,  Kagoshima,  the  place  where  Xavier 
had  landed.  In  the  following  year  the  guns  of  another 
great  feudal  chief,  the  Prince  of  Choshu,  fired  upon  for- 
eign vessels  passing  through  the  Straits  of  Shimonoseki 
at  the  western  entrance  to  the  Inland  Sea.  Accordingly, 
an  allied  fleet,  made  up  of  English,  French,  Dutch,  and 
American  vessels,  bombarded  his  forts  and  destroyed  them. 
These  two  actions  made  a  lively  impression  upon  the 
Japanese.  The  Satsuma  and  Choshu  clans,  having  learned 
from  experience  how  little  prepared  they  were  to  contend 
against  foreigners,  became  leaders  in  the  movement  for 
closer  intercourse  with  western  nations  in  order  to  receive 
instruction  in  the  arts  that  had  made  them  so  powerful. 

6.  The  Emperor  Ratifies  the  Treaties. — The  Shogun- 
ate  had  assented  to  the  treaties  on  its  own  authority.  As 
a  result,  it  found  itself  in  a  very  perplexing  position.  The 
nobles  at  Kyoto  induced  the  Emperor  to  send  word  that 
the  foreigners  must  be  driven  from  the  country.  The 
officials  in  Yedo  knew  how  impossible  it  would  be  to 
do  this,  but  they  could  not  openly  disobey  the  Emperor. 
They  adopted  a  temporizing  policy,  on  the  one  hand  as- 
suring the  Emperor  that  his  orders  would  be  carried  out, 
while,  on  the  other,  they  found  themselves  brought,  will- 
ingly or  unwillingly,  into  closer  relations  with  the  for- 
eigners. At  last  it  became  apparent  to  the  latter  that  the 
Shogun  was  not  the  sovereign  ruler  of  the  empire,  even 
in  things  temporal,  that  the  Mikado  had  not  sanctioned 
what  had  been  done,  and  that  the  great  daimyos  were 
much  enraged  at  having  been  ignored  in  the  matter.  The 
latter  at  first  objected  to  the  admission  of  foreigners; 
then,  when  they  saw  the  advantages  of  extended  trade, 
they  objected  equally  because  the  Shogun  had  opened  only 
ports  over  which  he  had  direct  control  and  from  whose 
opening  they  received  no  profit.  This  new  attitude,  joined 
with  other  influences,  led,  in  1865,  to  a  ratification  of  the 
treaties  by  the  Emperor  himself.  The  seclusion  of  cen- 
turies was  over,  and  Japan  came  forth  into  the  new  and 
strange  experiences  that  lay  before  her. 


VII 

The  Revolution 

I.  What  It  Was — The  year  1868  in  Japan  was  the 
year  of  one  of  the  most  astonishing  revolutions  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  world.  What  was  this  Revolution?  It  was 
(i)  the  abolition  of  the  Shogunate  after  it  had  lasted, 
with  slight  interruptions,  for  seven  hundred  years; 
(2)  the  resumption  by  the  Emperor  of  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment;  (3)  the  voluntary  surrender  by  the  daimyos 
of  their  feudal  powers  and  privileges  into  the  hands  of 
the  central  government;  (4)  the  adoption  of  the  Euro- 
pean system  of  departments  of  state  with  a  responsible 
minister  at  the  head  of  each.  It  was  a  radical  and  thor- 
ough change  from  feudalism  to  imperialism,  and  the  first 
step  toward  constitutional  government. 

II.  Its  Progress. — i.  Preparatory  Agitation. — This 
Revolution,  though  to  outsiders  it  appeared  sudden  and 
seemed  to  be  an  immediate  consequence  of  the  opening 
of  Japan  to  foreign  nations,  was  in  reality  the  crisis  and 
consummation  of  a  long  period  of  silent  preparation  for 
change.  For  a  century  and  more  the  jealousy  of  the 
daimyos  at  the  exclusive  power  wielded  by  the  Shogun, 
who  was  properly  only  one  of  themselves,  had  been  grow- 
ing more  and  more  restive,  and  at  the  same  time  an  im- 
portant intellectual  movement  was  fashioning  the  political 
views  of  the  educated  classes.  A  revival  of  Chinese  learn- 
ing, which  sprang  up  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, imbued  the  Japanese  mind  with  the  ethics  of  Con- 
fucius, from  which  they  derived  lofty  ideas  of  the  rever- 
ence due  to  the  sovereign.  The  publication,  in  171 5,  of 
the  Dai  Nihon  Shi,  the  great  history  already  mentioned, 
whose  central  purpose  was  to  exalt  the  sole  authority  of 
the  Mikado,  powerfully  stimulated  the  development  of 
these  ideas.    A  revival  of  Shintoism  helped  the  movement. 

63 


64  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

The  study  of  the  old  Shinto  books  showed  that  the  Mi- 
kado had  anciently  been  revered  as  the  representative  of 
the  gods ;  and  when  the  Revolution  came  a  cry  arose  for 
the  abolition  of  Buddhism,  which  was  identified  with  the 
Shogunate. 

2.  Effect  of  the  Foreign  Treaties. — The  detailed  history 
of  the  Revolution  cannot  be  given  here.  The  foreign 
treaties  were  undoubtedly  the  immediate  occasion  of  it. 
The  Shogun  who  signed  them  died  shortly  after,  under 
suspicious  circumstances.  His  successor  being  a  minor, 
there  was  appointed  as  regent  an  energetic  and  progressive 
man,  who  strongly  favored  foreign  intercourse.  He  was 
soon  assassinated,  and  his  head  was  exhibited,  with  a 
placard  inscribed,  "  This  is  the  head  of  a  traitor  who  has 
violated  the  most  sacred  law  of  Japan."  Then  ensued 
a  state  of  confusion,  the  Shogun's  Council  continuing  to 
conduct  foreign  affairs,  but  defied  at  home  by  the  dai- 
myos.  The  young  Shogun  died  in  1866,  but  not  before 
he  had  at  last  obtained  the  Mikado's  acceptance  of  the 
treaties.  The  daimyos,  as  intimated  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  were  beginning  to  see  that  Japan  would  gain  and 
not  lose  by  foreign  intercourse ;  and  the  Regent  of  Sat- 
suma  had  already,  despite  the  law  that  then  prohibited 
Japanese  from  going  abroad,  sent  young  men  to  visit 
Europe  and  America.  The  new  Shogun,  Keiki,  entered 
into  intrigues  with  the  envoys  of  Napoleon  HI.,  hoping 
to  make  France  his  ally  in  the  impending  struggle.  Thus 
both  parties  were  now  seeking  foreign  intercourse,  and 
the  Revolution,  which  began  with  the  cry,  "  Expel  the 
foreigners,"  ended  by  admitting  them  more  freely.  The 
Satsuma  men  who  had  visited  Europe  returned  with  open 
eyes  and  high  hopes,  just  in  time  to  guide  the  empire  at 
the  crisis  of  its  change,  which  was  now  imminent. 

3.  Resignation  of  the  Shogun. — The  new  Shogun  had 
scarcely  assumed  power  when  the  Emperor  died,  Febru- 
ary 3,  1867.  His  successor,  Mutsuhito,  being  a  young 
man,  the  party  of  progress  seized  the  opportunity  to  push 
their  designs.  They  persuaded  Keiki,  a  timid  and  vacil- 
lating man,  to  resign  the  vShogunate ;  and  then,  to  insure 
complete  success,  on  January  3,  1868,  they  seized  the  pal- 
ace at  Kyoto  and  proceeded  to  administer  the  government 
in  the  name  of  the  Emperor.    Civil  war  ensued ;   but,  in 


THE  REVOLUTION'  6$ 

a  desperate  battle  fought  at  Fushimi,  near  Kyoto,  which 
lasted  three  days,  the  Shogun's  army  was  totally  defeated ; 
and,  although  the  northern  clans  continued  the  contest 
on  their  own  ground,  the  Imperial  forces  were  everywhere 
victorious.  Within  a  few  months  the  young  Emperor  was 
the  undisputed  ruler  of  all  Japan.  Keiki  himself  submit- 
ted at  once  and  was  allowed  to  live  in  retirement.  Equal 
clemency  was  shown  even  to  the  leaders  who  held  out 
longer,  and  the  very  last  to  lay  down  his  arms,  a  noble 
named  Enomoto,  soon  afterward  became  Japanese  envoy 
at  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  since  then  has  held 
other  high  offices. 

4.  The  Emperor's  Oath. — The  young  Emperor  was 
now  brought  forth  from  behind  the  screen  of  ages,  and 
took  his  place  as  head  of  the  State.  In  the  presence  of 
feudal  lords  and  court  nobles  he  took  an  oath  by  which 
he  promised  that  "  a  deliberative  assembly  should  be 
formed ;  all  measures  should  be  decided  by  public  opin- 
ion; the  uncivilized  customs  of  former  years  should  be 
broken  through ;  the  impartiality  and  justice  displayed 
in  the  workings  of  nature  should  be  adopted  as  a  basis 
of  action ;  while  intellect  and  learning  should  be  sought 
throughout  the  world  in  order  to  establish  the  foundations 
of  the  empire." 

5.  Transfer  of  the  Capital. — In  the  eyes  of  the  people, 
the  outward  and  visible  sign  of  the  change  was  the  transfer 
of  the  capital  from  Kyoto  to  Yedo.  For  nearly  three 
centuries  Yedo  had  been  the  seat  of  the  executive  gov- 
ernment, but  Kyoto  was  the  sacred  imperial  city.  During 
the  progress  of  the  revolution,  Yedo,  being  identified  with 
the  falling  cause,  became  much  discredited,  and  the  pop- 
ulation was  rapidly  diminishing.  For  the  Emperor,  after 
centuries  of  seclusion  at  Kyoto,  to  come  forth  and  set  up 
his  throne  at  Yedo  before  the  world,  was  a  token  that 
a  new  era  had  indeed  begun.  To  emphasize  the  change, 
the  name  of  the  city  was  changed  to  Tokyo  (meaning 
Eastern  Capital).  The  Emperor  entered  it  in  state  on 
November  26,  1868. 

6.  The  End  of  Feudalism. — Then  followed  a  still  more 
remarkable  phase  of  the  Revolution.  It  was  made  clear 
to  the  victorious  daimyos,  under  the  influence  of  the  men 
who  had  seen  Western  civilization,  that  the  weak  point  in 

5  __ 


66  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

the  Japanese  polity  was  their  own  feudal  power;  that 
semi-independent  principalities  were  an  anachronism; 
and  that,  if  the  Mikado  was  to  reign  over  a  mighty  and 
united  empire,  a  centralized  government  was  essential. 
In  the  enthusiastic  tide  of  patriotism  personal  interests 
were  swept  aside,  and  the  leading  daimyos,  to  enable  their 
country — so  said  their  public  manifesto — *'  to  take  its 
place  side  by  side  with  the  other  countries  of  the  world," 
voluntarily  surrendered  the  whole  of  their  feudal  rights, 
lands,  and  revenues  into  the  hands  of  the  Imperial  Gov- 
ernment, and  took  the  position  of  private  gentlemen. 
Their  retainers  were  exhorted  to  give  their  entire  alle- 
giance directly  to  the  Emperor,  and  the  clans  became 
absorbed  in  the  nation.  In  the  very  same  year  that  the 
petty  kings  and  princes  of  Germany  crowned  King  Will- 
iam of  Prussia  Emperor  at  Versailles,  the  princes  and 
nobles  of  Japan  assembled  in  solemn  council  at  Tokyo, 
and  bowed  their  heads  in  submission  to  the  Mikado  as  his 
Prime  Minister  read  out  the  Imperial  decree  abolishing 
feudalism.    Truly,  it  was  a  wonderful  spectacle. 

Some  writers,  however,  have  rather  overdrawn  the 
picture.  In  many  of  the  clans  the  power  of  the  daimyos 
had  passed  into  the  hands  of  their  leading  retainers.  The 
change  tended  to  increase  the  importance  of  these  retain- 
ers, and  in  many  cases  it  was  they  who  had  most  influence 
in  bringing  about  the  resignation  of  their  masters.  To 
the  latter  the  change  did  not  at  first  mean  so  much  as 
might  be  supposed.  In  public  estimation  they  were  still 
looked  upon  as  chiefs  to  be  honored  by  their  old  retainers 
and  reverenced  by  the  peasantry.  The  most  efficient  be- 
came governors,  under  the  Imperial  Government,  of  the 
provinces  formerly  their  feudal  domains.  Life  pensions, 
afterward  redeemed  by  government  bonds,  were  granted 
to  them  and  their  retainers,  a  heavy  burden  being  thus  im- 
posed upon  the  finances  of  the  country. 


VIII 

New  Japan 

1.  Changed  Attitude   toward  Western  Civilization. — 

I.  Employment  of  Foreign  Instructors, — The  restoration 
of  power  to  the  Emperor  was  accompanied  by  a  great 
change  in  the  attitude  of  the  nation  toward  Western  ideas. 
The  country  reahzed  that  during  its  long  isolation  it  had 
fallen  behind  the  nations  of  the  West.  For  a  time,  at  least, 
it  was  necessary  to  become  the  pupil  of  those  who  had 
been  called  barbarians.  Some  thought  that  this  tutelage 
need  last  only  until  they  had  sufficiently  learned  the  mili- 
tary arts  of  Europe  to  drive  the  foreigners  from  the  sacred 
soil  of  Japan.  Others  were  more  far-sighted  and  desired 
their  country  to  receive  all  that  the  West  could  teach. 
The  new  government  invited  foreigners  to  come  and  give 
the  needed  instruction.  Europeans  and  Americans  were 
employed  to  drill  the  army,  open  mines,  and  establish 
new  industries.  Others  became  teachers  of  language  and 
science. 

2.  Changes  Introduced. — After  the  abolition  of  feudal- 
ism the  changes  proceeded  at  a  greatly  accelerated  rate. 
The  year  1872  is  memorable  in  the  annals  of  Japan  as 
a  year  of  extraordinary  progress.  The  Army,  Navy,  and 
Civil  Service  were  entirely  reconstructed ;  the  Imperial 
Mint  at  Osaka  was  opened  and  a  new  coinage  introduced ; 
the  Educational  Department,  established  in  1871,  largely 
extended  its  operations  under  an  enlightened  minister, 
and  a  University  was  established  at  Tokyo;  the  Post 
Office  was  organized,  runners  being  employed  who,  by 
connections,  could  cover  125  miles  a  day;  an  Industrial 
Exhibition  was  held  in  the  sacred  city  of  Kyoto ;  and,  on 
June  1 2th,  the  first  railway  in  Japan  was  opened,  from 
Tokyo  to  Yokohama,  a  distance  of  eighteen  miles. 

Nor  were  the  changes  all  material  in  character.    Many 

67 


68  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

moral  reforms  were  inaugurated.  The  eta,  the  pariahs 
of  Japan,  were  admitted  to  citizenship ;  the  two-sworded 
men  lost  their  exclusive  privileges;  important  regula- 
tions relating  to  marriage  were  framed;  and,  above  all, 
a  move  was  made  toward  the  toleration  of  Christianity, 
of  which  more  hereafter.  On  June  28th,  the  young  Em- 
peror set  out  on  a  tour  of  inspection  through  his  domin- 
ions. On  New  Year's  day  of  1873  the  calendar  of  the 
Western  world  was  adopted,  the  years,  however,  being 
reckoned  from  the  traditional  accession  of  the  first  Mi- 
kado, or  from  the  new  period  inaugurated  at  the  Revolu- 
tion and  called  Meiji,  so  that  1873  was  the  year  2533 
of  the  Empire  and  the  6th  of  Meiji. 

S'  An  Embassy  Sent  to  the  West. — Meanwhile,  in  De- 
cember, 1 87 1,  Japan  ratified  her  entrance  into  the  comity 
of  nations  by  sending  to  America  and  Europe  an  embassy 
of  nobles  and  ministers  of  high  rank.  It  was  headed  by 
Iwakura,  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  one  of  the 
most  enlightened  men  of  the  progressive  party.  Though 
the  Shogunate  had  sent  its  representatives  abroad,  this 
was  the  first  Imperial  embassy  to  the  West.  It  failed  to 
obtain  a  desired  revision  of  the  treaties,  but  many  things 
were  learned  in  Western  lands  that  had  a  great  influence 
upon  the  future  of  Japan. 

II.  Later  Changes — i.  Political. — The  last  quarter  of 
a  century  has  been  a  period  of  great  progress.  In  the 
government  established  immediately  after  the  Revolution 
of  1868  the  supreme  legislative  and  executive  power  had 
been  vested  in  the  Privy  Council,  which,  besides  the  Em- 
peror, consisted  of  three  chief  Ministers  of  State  and  a 
number  of  Privy  Councillors.  Immediately  subordinated 
to  the  Privy  Council  were  the  Ministries  or  Departments 
of  State.  This  was  only  a  transition  government;  for, 
as  already  noted,  when  the  Emperor  assumed  the  reins  of 
power,  he  solemnly  promised  that  "  a  deliberative  assem- 
bly should  be  formed  "  and  all  measures  decided  by  pub- 
lic opinion.  The  first  steps  in  this  direction  were  taken 
in  1875  by  creating  a  deliberative  assembly  composed  of 
the  governors  of  provinces,  who  were  to  consult  and  ad- 
vise on  measures  relating  to  administrative  matters  of 
general  application,  and  by  establishing  a  House  of  Sen- 
ators to  discuss  and  decide  upon  measures  of  new  legis- 
lation or  for  the  revision  of  existing  laws. 


MEW  JAPAN'  69 

There  was  a  still  more  decided  onward  movement  in 
1877,  when  provincial  representative  assemblies  were 
called  into  existence.  The  discussion  of  questions  of  local 
taxation  and  of  matters  of  local  interest  to  be  pressed  upon 
the  central  government  did  much  to  make  the  people  con- 
scious of  their  power,  to  show  them  the  value  of  represen- 
tative government,  and  to  educate  them  for  it.  The  press, 
platform,  and  debating  club,  both  before  and  since,  con- 
tributed toward  forming  public  opinion  on  the  subject; 
and  in  December,  1881,  the  Emperor,  yielding  to  its  press- 
ure, definitely  promised  to  establish  a  Parliament  in  1890. 
In  1884  the  system  of  nobility  was  modified  to  suit  the 
altered  circumstances  of  the  country,  and  many  who  had 
rendered  distinguished  service  were  made  marquises,  vis- 
counts, barons,  etc.  Thus  the  way  was  prepared  for  form- 
ing a  House  of  Peers  in  1890. 

In  anticipation  of  the  coming  change,  the  government 
was  reorganized  in  December,  1885.  This  was  no  mere 
redistribution  of  offices,  but  a  complete  reconstruction 
of  the  governmental  system.  Not  only  were  men  of  the 
old  court  party  removed  from  office  and  young  men  edu- 
cated abroad  called  to  fill  the  highest  posts,  but  "  the 
triple  Premiership,  Privy  Council,  and  Ministries  "  were 
abolished,  a  Cabinet,  formed  after  European  models,  tak- 
ing their  place. 

In  1889  the  Emperor  granted  a  written  Constitution 
to  the  people,  and  the  first  Parliament  met  in  1890.  The 
last  step  taken  in  this  path  of  political  progress  was  in 
1898,  when  the  principle  of  the  Cabinet's  responsibility 
to  the  Parliament  was  acknowledged. 

2.  Educational,  Material,  and  Social  Changes. — Prog- 
ress has  not  been  confined  to  methods  of  government. 
There  has  been  a  great  intellectual  awakening.  The  news- 
paper press  has  gone  on  developing  in  intelligence  and 
power  in  spite  of  the  stringent  regulations  that  existed 
for  several  years  and  led  to  the  imprisonment  of  so  many 
persons  that  it  is  said  some  periodicals  employed  a  man 
as  nominal  editor  whose  only  duty  was  to  go  to  prison 
whenever  an  indiscreet  utterance  of  the  journal  made  this 
necessary.  These  press  laws  have  now  been  repealed.  In 
1894  there  were  814  periodicals,  with  a  circulation  for  the 
year  of  357,735,426.    The  fact  that  518  new  serial  publi- 


70  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

cations  appeared  and  506  ceased  publication  during  that 
year  shows  how  short-Hved  are  most  of  the  periodicals. 
During  1894,  8,962  books  in  single  volumes  and  18,831 
numbers  of  serial  works  were  published.  Education  has 
made  rapid  strides.  The  Massachusetts  system  of  public 
schools  was  adopted  as  a  model  for  Japan,  but  has  been 
somewhat  modified,  among  other  things  a  fee  being  col- 
lected from  the  pupils.  There  were,  in  1894,  24,046  pri- 
mary schools,  eighty-four  *'  ordinary  middle "  schools, 
seven  higher  schools,  and  one  university.  A  second  uni- 
versity has  since  been  established.  There  are  also  many 
technical  schools  under  the  care  of  the  government,  and 
numerous  private  schools  of  various  grades. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  railroads, 
steamships,  and  telegraphs  of  the  country.  Manufactures 
of  various  kinds  have  been  introduced.  Many  new  forms 
of  industry  were  at  first  inaugurated  by  the  government 
or  aided  by  it,  but  there  is  now  little  need  for  such  foster- 
ing care. 

The  social  changes  that  have  grown  out  of  contact  with 
Western  nations  are  too  numerous  for  mention.  They 
have  been  felt  in  almost  every  department  of  life.  Fifteen 
years  ago  the  country  was  in  the  midst  of  a  great  wave 
of  enthusiasm  for  the  introduction  of  Western  customs. 
Officials  and  men  of  wealth  adopted  the  European  dress, 
and  their  wives  began  to  do  the  same.  This  outward 
change  was  fostered  by  the  government,  and  partly  for 
political  reasons,  it  being  said  that,  so  long  as  the  Jap- 
anese retained  their  national  costume,  they  were  treated 
by  foreigners  as  Asiatics,  but  the  adoption  of  the  Euro- 
pean dress  led  to  the  wearers  being  treated  as  equals, 
and  thus  it  would  be  easier  to  induce  Western  nations  to 
consent  to  such  a  revision  of  treaties  as  was  desired  by 
the  Japanese.  Dancing  in  foreign  style,  balls,  concerts, 
dramatic  entertainments  were  taken  up  by  fashionable 
people. 

There  soon  came  a  reaction.  The  men  had  found  the 
European  garments  so  much  more  convenient  that  they 
were  retained,  but  the  women  laid  aside  the  bonnet,  the 
dress,  and  the  tight  shoes,  that  they  might  resume  the 
national  costume;  and  the  foreign  amusements  and  ac- 
complishments that  had  once  been  sought  with  so  much 


NEW  JAPAN  yi 

avidity  now  fell  into  disfavor.  In  many  particulars  the 
movement  for  rejecting  foreign  customs  triumphed  for 
awhile,  but  probably  there  has  been  no  time  when,  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously,  the  Japanese  have  not  been 
vielding  to  influences  that  are  affecting  their  modes  of 
life. 

One  instance  of  accepting  the  customs  of  Christendom 
was  the  adoption  of  Sunday  as  a  day  of  rest  in  govern- 
ment offices  and  schools.  This  change  from  an  old  sys- 
tem, by  which  one  day  in  five  was  to  some  extent  a  holi- 
day, was  made  in  1876,  because  many  Europeans  engaged 
in  various  departments  refused,  from  whatever  motives, 
to  work  on  Sundays.  The  holiday  is  not  observed  by  many 
business  houses,  but  the  freedom  of  officials,  teachers,  and 
students  on  that  day  has  been  a  help  to  Christian  work. 

III.  The  Satsuma  Rebellion. — The  progress  of  which 
we  have  been  speaking  has  not  been  effected  without  diffi- 
culty and  turmoil.  Disaffection  repeatedly  showed  itself 
among  the  samurai  after  they  were  dispossessed  of  their 
privileges,  and  more  than  once  open  insurrection  broke 
out.  The  Satsuma  Rebellion  of  1877,  especially,  was  a 
most  serious  affair,  and  demands  a  brief  notice. 

1.  Satsuma. — Satsuma  is  in  the  southern  part  of  Kyu- 
shu. Its  daimyo  was  the  most  powerful,  and  almost  the 
richest,  of  the  feudal  chiefs,  and  certainly  the  most  inde- 
pendent. The  de  facto  chief,  Shimazu  Saburo,  who  had 
acted  for  his  son,  the  nominal  head  of  the  clan,  but  a 
minor,  since  1858,  played  a  leading  part  in  the  Revolution. 
It  was  he  whose  retainers  killed  Mr.  Richardson  in  1862 ; 
it  was  he  whose  city,  Kagoshima,  was  bombarded  by  the 
English ;  it  was  he  who  led  the  attack  on  the  Shogunate. 
Among  his  leading  retainers  were  Saigo  and  Okubo,  who, 
under  the  new  government  of  the  Emperor,  became  re- 
spectively Commander-in-chief  and  Minister  of  Finance. 

2.  Disaffection  of  the  Satsuma  Men. — Within  a  year 
after  the  Revolution  divergencies  of  opinion  began  to 
appear  in  the  Cabinet.  The  Prime  Minister  and  Vice- 
Prime  Minister,  Sanjo  and  Iwakura,  headed  the  progres- 
sive party,  and  were  supported  by  Okubo  and  other  Sat- 
suma men;  while  Shimazu — who  held  no  post,  but  had 
great  influence — and  Saigo  were  unwilling  to  go  farther 
than  they  had  already  gone,  and  exhibited  reactionary 


72  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

tendencies.  In  particular,  the  two  latter  advocated  the 
old  rights  of  the  samurai  and  endeavored,  in  1873,  to  force 
Japan  into  a  war  with  Korea,  hoping  that  by  gaining  mili- 
tary glory  the  two-sworded  men  would  recover  their  for- 
mer pre-eminence.  Iwakura  and  Okubo,  having  been  in 
Europe  and  America,  had  learned  the  advantages  of  peace, 
and  their  views  prevailed  in  the  government,  although, 
as  a  kind  of  sop  to  the  discontented  samurai,  an  expedition 
was  undertaken  in  1874  to  Formosa,  to  punish  the  people 
of  that  island  for  some  outrages  on  shipwrecked  Japanese. 
Saigo  retired  from  the  ministry,  and  Shimazu  presented 
to  the  Emperor  a  solemn  protest  against  twenty  specified 
innovations  contrary  to  national  usage,  one  of  which  was 
"  the  engagement  of  foreigners  for  the  service  of  the 
state,  and  the  adoption  of  their  ideas,"  and  another,  "  the 
non-prohibition  of  the  extension  of  evil  doctrines " — 
i.e.,  Christianity.  No  attention  was  paid  to  this  memorial, 
and  when,  in  1876,  the  carrying  of  two  swords  was  for- 
bidden, Shimazu  acknowledged  the  impossibility  of  real- 
izing his  dream,  and  retired  from  the  political  arena. 

3.  The  Rebellion. — Saigo  was  not  so  easily  overcome. 
In  view  of  a  possible  contest,  he  and  his  followers  carried 
on  the  manufacture  of  arms  at  Kagoshima  on  their  own 
account,  and  gradually  perfected  a  military  organization 
for  the  overthrow  of  the  government,  all  being  done  nom- 
inally for  the  Emperor,  though  in  avowed  opposition  to 
his  ministers.  At  length,  in  February,  1877,  civil  war 
broke  out.  A  desperate  conflict  ensued,  which  desolated 
Kyushu  for  seven  months.  It  ended  in  the  defeat  of 
Saigo.  On  September  24th  he  and  the  remnant  of  his 
personal  followers  were  surrounded  and  overpowered. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  to  fall  wounded  to  the  ground, 
when  one  of  his  lieutenants,  true  to  the  ancient  custom 
of  Japan,  cut  off  his  chief's  head  with  a  single  blow  of  his 
heavy  sword,  and  then  slew  himself  by  hara-kiri.  The 
suppression  of  the  rebellion  greatly  strengthened  the  gov- 
ernment, but  it  did  not  give  universal  satisfaction.  Thou- 
sands of  people  visited  the  grave  of  Saigo,  and  a  popular 
belief  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  that  his  spirit  had  taken 
up  its  abode  in  the  planet  Mars,  while  those  of  his  follow- 
ers inhabited  a  new  race  of  frogs  which  was  said  to  have 
appeared  in  Kyushu. 


NEW  JAPAN  73 

IV.  The  War  with  China — i.  The  decisive  victory 
gained  in  the  war  with  China  during  1894-5  has  raised 
Japan  to  a  new  position  among  the  nations  of  the  East. 
The  contest  arose  from  China's  unwilHngness  to  acknowl- 
edge the  independence  of  Korea,  and  her  alleged  violation 
of  agreements  that  had  been  made  with  Japan  concerning 
that  kingdom.  Though  Japan  was  victorious,  the  com- 
bined interference  of  Russia,  France,  and  Germany  pre- 
vented her  from  retaining  the  territory  that  she  had  con- 
quered in  Northern  China.  She  received  instead  a  large 
indemnity,  and  was  allowed  to  keep  Formosa,  which  had 
been  occupied  by  Japanese  soldiers.  The  necessity  of 
yielding  to  the  demands  of  the  three  European  nations 
was  felt  by  the  Japanese  to  be  a  humiliation,  and  there 
was  much  bitterness,  especially  against  Russia. 

2.  Some  of  the  results  of  the  war  as  regards  Japan 
itself  are  thus  described  by  Dr.  D.  C.  Greene :  "  It  gave 
a  new  impetus  to  almost  every  department  of  secular  life. 
It  was  natural,  in  view  of  the  large  indemnity  secured 
from  China,  that  the  army  and  navy  should  be  pushed 
forward  as  rapidly  as  possible,  in  order  that  she  might 
claim  to  be  the  dominant  power  in  Eastern  Asia.  This 
undue  emphasis  is  much  to  be  regretted,  because  it  can 
hardly  fail  to  stimulate  the  military  spirit  to  a  degree  not 
merely  harmful  to  Japan,  but  also  to  the  world.  Still,  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  extraordinary  development  of 
the  national  consciousness,  which  is  directly  traceable  to 
the  experiences  of  the  past  three  years,  has  been,  on  the 
whole,  healthful.  Some  of  its  manifestations  have  been 
unhappy,  and  some  of  the  claims  put  forth  have  been 
extravagant;  but  there  has  been  abundant  evidence  of 
vigorous  life,  which  we  may  well  trust  to  assert  itself 
against  the  more  or  less  morbid  features  incident  to  the 
excitements  of  these  stirring  times." 

V.  Revision  of  the  Treaties. — i.  Japan  had  for  years 
attempted  to  gain  the  consent  of  Western  nations  for  a 
revision  of  treaties.  Those  that  had  been  made  in  1858 
and  the  following  years  restricted  the  rights  of  Japan  in 
regard  to  the  duties  imposed  on  imports,  and  also  provided 
for  a  system  of  extra-territoriality,  by  which  foreigners 
charged  with  crime  were  tried  in  the  consular  courts  of 
their  own  nationality.    The  different  Ministers  for  For- 


74  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

eign  Affairs  had  labored  hard  to  effect  a  change;  long 
conferences  were  held  with  the  representatives  of  Western 
nations ;  various  drafts  were  prepared ;  "  treaty  revi- 
sion "  was  for  years  a  subject  for  discussion  in  news- 
papers, chambers  of  commerce,  and  missionary  confer- 
ences, and  several  cabinets  went  out  of  office  because  of 
failure  to  bring  about  what  the  nation  desired. 

2.  The  United  States  had  for  a  long  time  been  ready 
to  grant  a  revision,  but  the  consent  of  all  the  nations  was 
necessary.  At  last,  in  1894,  the  country  was  rejoiced 
to  learn  that  a  treaty  had  been  signed  with  Great  Britain, 
which  granted,  after  July,  1899,  judicial  and  tariff  auton- 
omy to  Japan;  Upon  the  other  hand,  British  subjects 
were,  after  the  same  date,  to  be  permitted  to  travel,  reside, 
and  carry  on  business  in  the  interior.  Similar  treaties 
have  since  been  negotiated  with  other  nations,  so  that 
July,  1899,  bids  fair  to  mark  an  important  date  in  Japan's 
history.  At  that  time  she  finds  herself  received  as  an  equal 
into  the  sisterhood  of  nations. 


IX 

Modern  Missions 

1.  Interest  concerning  Japan  before  Its  Re-opening.^ 

Even  before  Japan  entered  into  treaty  relations  with 
Western  lands,  the  eyes  of  those  who  were  interested  in 
the  extension  of  Christianity  turned  toward  this  mysteri- 
ous country  and  longed  to  see  its  closed  doors  thrown  open 
for  the  entrance  of  the  Gospel. 

A.  Among  Roman  Catholics. — i.  Ecclesiastical  Ap- 
pointments.— The  Roman  Catholic  Church  could  not  for- 
get the  past  successes  of  its  missionaries  nor  cease  to  pray 
that  the  land  consecrated  by  the  blood  of  so  many  martyrs 
might  witness  a  renewal  of  the  great  triumphs  won  by  the 
Jesuits.  On  some  of  the  missionary  bishops  sent  to  Asi- 
atic countries  by  the  Societe  des  Missions  Etrangeres,  the 
greatest  foreign  missionary  society  of  the  Roman  Church, 
was  bestowed  the  barren  title  of  Vicars  Apostolic  of  Japan, 

2.  Sidotti. — An  Italian  Jesuit,  named  Sidotti,  who,  as 
a  youth,  had  become  intensely  interested  in  Japan,  resolved 
that  he  would  attempt  to  enter  the  country.  Going  to 
Manila,  he  spent  some  time  in  studying  the  Japanese  lan- 
guage. At  last,  in  1709,  he  persuaded  a  captain  to  take 
him  to  the  southern  part  of  Kyushu,  where  he  was  set 
ashore  by  a  small  boat  and  then  left  alone— one  man 
against  a  nation.  He  was  soon  discovered,  and,  though 
his  pronunciation  was  very  imperfect,  managed  to  hold 
some  slight  communication  with  the  officers  who  arrested 
him.  He  was  finally  taken  to  Yedo,  where  he  was  put 
under  the  care  of  an  official,  who  closely  questioned  him 
concerning  foreign  lands  and  his  object  in  coming  to 
Japan.  In  one  of  the  buildings  connected  with  his  place 
of  confinement  lived  an  old  man  and  woman  who  had 
long  before  been  arrested  as  Christians  and  had  recanted. 
Sidotti  had  the  joy  of  leading  them  to  a  renewal  of  theii; 

75 


•/S  JAPAN-  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

faith;  but,  though  he  lived  on  as  a  prisoner  for  many 
years,  probably  dying  a  natural  death,  there  is  nothing 
to  show  that  there  were  other  visible  results  of  his  self- 
sacrificing  devotion. 

3.  Missionaries  in  Loochoo. — The  interest  of  Roman 
Catholics  was  freshly  aroused  in  1831,  when  twenty  Jap- 
anese sailors,  wrecked  on  the  shores  of  the  Philippine 
Islands,  were  found  to  have  in  their  possession  Christian 
medals,  which  they  regarded  with  great  reverence,  saying 
that  they  had  been  handed  down  to  them  from  their  an- 
cestors. Not  far  from  this  time  partially  successful  at- 
tempts were  made  to  send  catechists  to  Japan,  but  it  is 
not  known  whether  they  were  able  to  accomplish  any- 
thing. In  1844  a  naval  vessel  of  France,  which,  like  other 
European  nations,  was  seeking  a  way  to  open  Japan,  car- 
ried to  Loochoo  a  priest  named  M.  Forcade  and  a  native 
catechist.  Negotiations  were  opened  with  the  King,  who 
permitted  them  to  remain.  They  were,  however,  kept 
under  constant  surveillance.  "  I  was  barely  allowed," 
wrote  M.  Forcade,  "  to  take  a  little  exercise  on  the  sand 
or  mud  by  the  seashore,  and  even  then  I  might  not  go 
alone.  I  was  surrounded  by  the  inevitable  mandarins, 
preceded  by  satellites  armed  with  bamboos  to  strike  the 
poor  people  and  drive  off  any  passers-by,  which  was  nat- 
urally calculated  to  render  me  an  object  of  odium."  The 
Japanese  Government,  which  claimed  authority  over 
Loochoo,  demanded  that  the  missionaries  be  put  to  death, 
and  it  is  said  to  be  largely  owing  to  the  representations 
of  the  Dutch  resident  at  Nagasaki  that  they  were  unmo- 
lested. Other  priests  joined  them,  and,  to  some  extent, 
they  were  less  hampered,  "  but,  as  regards  evangelical 
work,  all  they  could  possibly  achieve  was  to  baptize  a  few 
babies  at  the  point  of  death  and  also  a  few  old  people." 

B.  Among  Protestants. — i.  Contributions  for  Work 
in  Japan. — Protestants  were  not  unmindful  of  the  distant 
land.  One  act  of  faith  on  the  part  of  Christians  is  worthy 
of  record.  About  the  year  1827  a  Christian  merchant, 
residing  in  Brookline,  Mass.,  invited  a  few  friends  to 
meet  at  his  house  that  they  might  pray  for  the  conversion 
of  the  world.  At  the  first  meeting,  when  it  was  proposed 
that  a  contribution  be  made,  the  question  arose  about  how 
the  money  should  be  used.    On  the  table  was  a  Japanese 


MODERN  MISSIONS  J^ 

basket  that  had  been  brought  from  the  East  by  one  of 
the  merchant's  ships.  Taking  it  in  his  hand,  he  proposed 
that  they  contribute  money  for  missionary  work  in  Japan. 
The  proposal,  which  seems  strange  when  we  remember 
what  was  then  the  condition  of  Japan,  was  adopted.  In 
a  few  years  over  $600  had  been  collected,  and  by  the  time 
the  American  Board  commenced  its  work  in  Japan  this 
money,  which  had  been  committed  to  its  care,  amounted, 
with  accrued  interest,  to  over  $4,000. 

2.  Dr,  Bettelheim  in  Loochoo. — Kindness  which  had 
been  shown  by  the  natives  of  Loochoo  to  shipwrecked  sail- 
ors led  certain  officers  of  the  British  navy  to  feel  such  an 
interest  in  their  behalf  that  they  formed  among  themselves 
a  missionary  society  for  the  purpose  of  sending  the  Gospel 
to  Loochoo.  Dr.  Bettelheim,  a  converted  Jew,  a  physi- 
cian, reached  the  Islands  in  1846.  He  met  with  opposition 
similar  to  that  encountered  by  the  French  priests.  Though 
at  first  the  people  gathered  about  him  and  gladly  received 
his  tracts,  the  officers  caused  the  latter  to  be  gathered  up 
and  returned  to  him.  After  awhile  they  compelled  people 
to  leave  the  streets  through  which  he  passed,  and  to  shut 
up  their  houses  so  as  to  prevent  his  entrance.  At  least 
three  persons  are  said  to  have  been  baptized  by  him,  not- 
withstanding the  difficulties  under  which  he  labored. 

3.  Translation  of  the  Scriptures. — Though  the  living 
preacher  was  excluded  from  Japan,  it  was  hoped  that 
some  way  might  be  found  for  the  entrance  of  the  printed 
Word.  Through  the  knowledge  of  the  language  obtained 
by  the  Dutch  merchants  and  from  shipwrecked  sailors, 
something  could  be  learned  that  made  it  possible  to  pre- 
pare very  imperfect  translations  of  portions  of  the  Bible. 
Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams  says  of  some  of  the  Japanese  who 
were  brought  back  to  Macao  after  the  unsuccessful  ex- 
pedition of  the  Morrison :  "  Two  remained  with  Mr. 
Giitzlaff  for  many  years,  and  two  worked  in  my  printing 
office  at  Macao.  These  four  aided  us  in  getting  some 
knowledge  of  their  language,  so  that  between  us  the  books 
of  Genesis  and  Matthew,  and  the  Gospel  and  Epistles  of 
John  were  done  into  Japanese  for  their  instruction."  Dr. 
Bettelheim  also  attempted  similar  work,  and  some  of  it 
was  printed. 

4.  The   American   Expedition. — ^Though   Commodore 


78  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

Perry's  errand  was  political  and  commercial,  he  was  not 
oblivious  to  the  fact  that  a  successful  accomplishment  of 
his  task  would  result  in  opening  the  country  to  Chris- 
tianity. The  first  Sunday  spent  in  Japanese  waters  was 
a  time  when  the  people  were  taught  something  of  our 
religion.  They  had  been  very  curious  to  inspect  the 
strange  vessels  that  had  so  suddenly  come  among  them. 
Large  numbers  of  sightseers  had  been  permitted  to  come 
on  deck  in  order  to  look  about.  On  Sunday  morning 
those  who  came  were  told  that  the  day  was  one  that  Amer- 
icans used  for  the  worship  of  God,  and  that,  in  order  to 
preserve  due  quiet,  no  visitors  would  be  received.  When 
the  time  came  for  morning  service  Commodore  Perry 
caused  the  old  Scotch  version  of  the  One  Hundredth 
Psalm  to  be  sung: 

All  people  that  on  earth  do  dwell, 

Sing  to  the  Lord  with  joyful  voice  ; 
Him  serve  with  mirth,  His  praise  forth  tell, 

Come  ye  before  Him  and  rejoice. 

It  was  America's  summons  to  the  hermit  nation  that,  in 
coming  out  from  its  long  seclusion,  it  should  receive  not 
merely  the  material  civilization  of  the  West,  but  also  that 
it  should  learn  to  know  and  worship  the  God  of  Nations. 
Among  those  connected  with  Perry's  Expedition  were 
some  who  earnestly  hoped  that  it  might  prepare  the  way 
for  missions,  and  they  improved  all  opportunities  to  learn 
what  they  could  of  the  land  in  order  that  they  might  know 
what  could  be  done  for  its  evangelization.  Dr.  S.  Wells 
Williams,  who  had  been  a  missionary  in  China,  was  one 
of  the  interpreters  of  the  Expedition.  As  we  have  already 
seen,  he  had  before  this  attempted  to  translate  portions 
of  the  Scriptures  into  Japanese.  Among  the  marines  was 
a  young  man  who  had  enlisted  for  the  purpose  of  learn- 
ing about  the  land  where  he  hoped  that  he  could  after- 
ward engage  in  religious  work.  His  good  behavior  and 
a  special  service  rendered  while  the  Expedition  was  at 
the  Loochoo  Islands  won  from  Commodore  Perry  extra 
opportunities  to  go  on  shore.  The  knowledge  thus  gained 
he  afterward  utilized  in  a  way  that  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  American  Baptist  Free  Missionary  Society. 
II.    Missionary  Work — When    friends    of    missions^ 


MODERN  MISSIONS  7^ 

learned  that  Commodore  Perry  had  succeeded  in  negotiat- 
ing a  treaty  with  Japan,  new  interest  was  aroused  in  the 
evangeHzation  of  the  land.  It  was  as  yet,  however,  im- 
possible to  commence  any  direct  work,  since  the  Ameri- 
can treaty  and  those  soon  after  secured  by  other  nations 
did  not  permit  the  residence  of  foreigners.  Though,  after 
the  treaties  of  1858,  Protestant  missionaries  were  the  fore- 
most to  enter  the  country,  it  will  be  more  convenient  to 
consider  first  the  work  done  by  others. 

A.  Roman  Catholic  Missions. — i.  The  First  Mis- 
sionaries.— As  soon  as  the  French  had  negotiated  a  treaty 
with  Japan,  priests  were  sent  to  the  country,  nominally 
to  attend  to  the  spiritual  wants  of  European  Catholics. 
Chapels  were  erected  at  Yokohama  and  Nagasaki.  That 
of  the  former  city  was  dedicated  in  January,  1862,  and 
was  daily  visited  by  many  Japanese  drawn  thither  by 
curiosity.  To  these  visitors  the  priests  tried  to  explain 
the  meaning  of  the  pictures  upon  the  walls.  The  officials 
soon  took  notice  of  these  occurrences  and  arrested  about 
fifty  of  the  people  who  had  visited  the  chapel.  One  of 
the  priests  wrote :  "  Immediately  the  panic  spreads  in 
all  directions,  the  news  of  the  persecution  is  confirmed, 
and  the  strangers  in  the  land  are  everywhere  agitated. 
Our  church  is  deserted."  When  the  French  representa- 
tive called  the  attention  of  the  Governor  to  these  events, 
the  latter  replied  that  the  Japanese  must  suffer  the  penalty 
for  violating  the  law  of  the  country.  It  was  in  the  same 
year,  1862,  that  Pius  IX.  proclaimed  the  canonization  of 
the  "  Twenty-six  Martyrs  of  Japan,"  who  had  been  cruci- 
fied at  Nagasaki  in  1597. 

2.  The  Discovery  of  Christians. — In  1865  a  fine  church 
was  dedicated,  in  Nagasaki,  to  the  "  Twenty-six  Martyrs." 
It  was  in  the  charge  of  M.  Petitjean,  a  priest  who  had 
spent  several  years  in  Loochoo,  and  from  thence  come  to 
Japan.  It  was  in  this  church  that  there  occurred  a  strik- 
ing event,  which  filled  his  heart  with  joy,  encouraged  the 
Roman  Catholic  workers,  and  was  followed  by  momen- 
tous consequences.  The  story  is  best  told  in  his  own 
words : 

Scarce  a  month  had  elapsed  since  the  benediction  of  the 
church  at  Nagasaki.  On  March  17, 1865,  about  half-past  twelve, 
some  fifteen  persons  were  standing  at  the  church  door.     Urged, 


So  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

no  doubt,  by  my  angel  guardian,  I  went  up  and  opened  the  door. 
I  had  scarce  time  to  say  a  Pater  when  three  women,  between  fifty 
and  sixty  years  of  age,  knelt  down  beside  me  and  said,  in  a  low 
voice,  placing  their  hands  upon  their  hearts  : 

**  The  hearts  of  all  of  us  here  do  not  differ  from  yours." 
**  Indeed  !  "  I  exclaimed.     **  Whence  do  you  come  ?  " 
They   mentioned   their  village,   adding:     "At   home  every- 
body is  the  same  as  we  are!" 

Blessed  be  Thou,  O,  my  God!  for  all  the  happiness  which 
filled  my  soul.  What  a  compensation  for  five  years  of  barren 
ministry ! 

The  w^omen  continued  to  talk  with  him  in  a  way  that 
showed  they  had  considerable  knowledge  of  Christianity,' 
and  they  had  many  inquiries  to  make  of  the  priest. 

In  the  midst  of  this  volley  of  questions  footsteps  were  heard  ; 
immediately  all  dispersed.  But  soon  as  the  new-comers  were 
recognized,  all  returned,  laughing  at  their  fright. 

"  They  are  people  of  our  village,"  they  said.  "  They  have  the 
same  hearts  as  we  have." 

However,  we  had  to  separate  for  fear  of  awakening  the  suspi- 
cions of  the  officials  whose  visit  I  feared.  On  Maundy  Thursday 
and  Good  Friday,  April  13  and  14,  1,500  people  visited  the 
church  of  Nagasaki.  The  presbytery  was  invaded  ;  the  faithful 
took  the  opportunity  to  satisfy  their  devotion  before  the  crucifix 
and  the  statues  of  Our  Lady.  During  the  early  days  of  May  the 
missioners  learned  of  the  existence  of  2,500  Christians  scattered 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city.  On  May  15  there  arrived  dele- 
gates from  an  island  not  very  far  from  here.  After  a  short  inter- 
view we  dismissed  them,  detaining  only  the  Catechist  and  the 
leader  of  the  pilgrimage.  The  Catechist,  named  Peter,  gave  us 
the  most  valuable  information.  Let  me  first  say  that  his  formula 
for  baptism  does  not  differ  at  all  from  ours,  and  that  he  pro- 
nounces it  very  distinctly.  He  declares  that  there  are  many 
Christians  left  up  and  down  all  over  Japan.  He  cited  in  particu- 
lar one  place  where  there  are  over  1,000  Christian  families. 

3.  Persecutions. — The  coming  of  so  many  people  to 
the  church  and  the  reports  of  what  was  happening  soon 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  officials.  It  was  not  long 
before  arrests  wereinade.  The  persecution  which  then 
commenced  reached  its  height  in  1869.  Some  of  the 
Christians  were  tortured,  beaten,  or  cast  into  prison. 
Thousands  were  sent  into  exile,  being  scattered  among 
different  provinces,  and  in  many  cases  being  forced  to 
hard  labor  in  the  mines.    "  It  is  calculated,"  says  a  Ro- 


MODERN  MISSIONS  %k 

man  Catholic  writer,  "  that,  between  1868  and  1873,  ^rom 
6,000  to  8,000  Christians  were  torn  from  their  families, 
deported,  and  subjected  to  cruel  tortures,  so  that  nearly 
2,000  died  in  prison." 

Though  European  and  American  sea-captains  were 
willing,  for  the  sake  of  gain,  to  transport  these  unfortu- 
nate people  to  their  places  of  exile,  the  official  represen- 
tatives of  Western  nations.  Catholic  and  Protestant  alike, 
united  in  protesting  against  what  was  being  done,  saying 
that  Japan,  in  punishing  people  simply  because  of  their 
belief  in  Christianity,  was  throwing  dishonor  upon  the 
Christian  nations  with  which  Japan  had  made  treaties. 
At  first  these  protests  were  of  no  avail.  Mr.  Long,  who 
was  then  United  States  Minister,  says :  ''  After  all  our 
arguments  had  been  used  we  were  finally  told  by  Mr.  Iwa- 
kura  that  this  government  rested  upon  the  Shinto  faith, 
which  taught  the  divinity  of  the  Mikado,  that  the  propa- 
gation of  the  Christian  faith  and  religion  tended  to  dispel 
that  belief,  and  that  consequently  it  was  the  resolve  of  this 
government  to  resist  its  propagation  as  they  would  resist 
the  advance  of  an  invading  army."  The  continued  pro- 
tests of  the  ministers,  aided  by  the  course  of  events,  at 
last  led  to  a  cessation  of  these  persecutions,  and,  in  1872, 
many  of  the  Christian  prisoners  were  set  at  liberty.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that,  on  the  return  of  these  exiles  to  their 
homes,  and  with  the  discovery  of  other  Christian  com- 
munities, the  Roman  Catholics  had  several  thousand  be- 
lievers at  the  time  when  the  baptized  converts  to  the  Prot- 
estant faith  numbered  only  ten.  It  was  not  until  1873 
that  all  the  prisoners  were  freed. 

4.  Later  History. — Roman  Catholicism  has  had  to  con- 
tend against  the  prejudices  aroused  by  remembrance  of 
the  troubles  of  three  centuries  ago — prejudices  that  have 
existed  against  all  forms  of  Christianity,  though  not  felt 
so  much  by  Protestants  and  the  Russo-Greek  Church. 
Nevertheless,  it  has  had  a  considerable  growth.  Most 
of  the  missionaries  are  French.  Much  has  been  done  by 
gathering  children  into  orphanages  and  other  charitable 
institutions,  where  they  can  be  educated  in  the  Catholic 
faith.  Many  children  of  unbelievers  are  baptized  when 
at  the  point  of  death,  it  being  believed  that  such  baptism 
insures  their  salvation.  The  rite  may  be  administered  by 
6 


82  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

others  than  ecclesiastics.  The  Mission  publishes  a  number 
of  tracts  and  books,  many  of  them  being  bitter  attacks  on 
Protestantism.  Recently  it  has  published  a  translation 
of  the  Vulgate  version  of  the  Bible,  and  it  is  somewhat 
remarkable  that  the  translator  is  a  Protestant  Japanese. 

The  statistics  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  for  1898 
are  as  follows :  Archbishop,  i ;  Bishops,  3 ;  European 
Missionaries,  106;  Japanese  Priests,  26;  Japanese  Cate- 
chists,  284;  Marianite  Friars — European  28,  Japanese 
2;  Cistercian  Brothers,  23;  European  Sisters,  102;  Jap- 
anese Sisters,  20;  Congregations,  246;  Baptisms  of  In- 
fants having  Christian  parents,  1,630;  of  those  having 
heathen  parents,  1,279 ;  Adult  Baptisms,  2,073  5  Total  Ad- 
herents, 53,427.  In  comparing  the  last  item  with  the 
Protestant  church-membership  (40,981),  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  in  most  cases  the  latter  does  not  include 
children. 

B.  The  Russo-Greek  Mission. — i.  In  1861  there 
came  to  Japan,  as  Chaplain  to  the  Russian  Consulate  at 
Hakodate,  a  remarkable  man  who  has  since  had  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  religious  history  of  the  land.  He  is 
now  known  as  Bishop  Nicolai.  For  several  years  he 
made  no  attempt  to  preach  to  the  Japanese,  but  devoted 
himself  to  a  careful  study  of  the  language.  A  Buddhist 
priest,  who  came  to  revile  the  Russian  chaplain,  was  led 
to  study  Christianity,  and  in  1866  he  was  baptized  as 
Father  Nicolai's  first  convert.  Three  years  later  a  physi- 
cian was  baptized.  Returning  in  1869  to  Russia,  Nicolai 
induced  the  Holy  Synod  to  establish  a  mission  in  Japan. 
In  1 87 1  he  came  to  Tokyo.  A  man  of  striking  appearance 
and  great  personal  magnetism,  he  has  exerted  a  wonderful 
power  over  those  who  have  come  under  his  influence.  At 
no  time  have  there  been  more  than  four  other  missionaries 
associated  with  him,  and  at  present  there  are  only  two; 
but  many  native  assistants  have  been  thoroughly  trained 
and  sent  to  different  parts  of  the  land.  A  few  of  them 
have  been  educated  in  Russia. 

2.  In  the  heart  of  Tokyo  there  has  been  erected  a  splen- 
did cathedral,  the  most  conspicuous  building  in  the  city. 
Some  have  thought  that  in  erecting  such  a  cathedral 
Bishop  Nicolai  failed  to  show  his  usual  wisdom.  It  has 
certainly  aroused   much   prejudice,   especially   at  times 


MODERN  MISSIONS  83 

when  Russia  has  been  suspected  of  having  poHtical  rea- 
sons for  extending  the  influence  of  its  national  church. 
The  Russian  Church  in  Japan  uses  the  translation  of  the 
Scriptures  circulated  by  the  American  and  British  Bible 
Societies,  although  it  does  not  allow  its  followers  to  have 
Christian  fellowship  with  other  churches.  From  Tokyo 
the  missionaries  have  extended  their  operations  into  225 
out-stations,  where  169  churches  are  found.  It  is  signifi- 
cant that  this  Church  should  have  so  emphasized  work 
among  women  and  children.  This  has  been  very  effec- 
tively done  through  ninety-four  Japanese  Bible  women. 
In  1898  a  church  membership  of  24,531  was  reported, 
including,  doubtless,  a  large  number  of  children. 

C.  Protestant  Missions. — i.  The  First  Missionaries. 
— Protestant  missionaries  were  as  eager  as  those  of  Rome 
to  take  advantage  of  the  treaties  that  opened  the  country 
to  foreign  residence,  and  to  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  of  America  belongs  the  high  honor  of  being  the 
first  to  enter  Japan.  On  May  2,  1859,  two  months  before 
the  time  set  by  the  treaties,  Rev.  J.  Liggins  arrived  at 
Nagasaki,  where  he  was  joined  a  month  later  by  Rev.  C. 
M.  (afterward  Bishop)  Williams.  Both  had  been  mis- 
sionaries in  China  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of 
the  United  States.  In  October,  Dr.  J.  C.  Hepburn,  a  m.ed- 
ical  missionary  of  the  American  Presbyterian  Board,  land- 
ed in  Kanagawa ;  and  in  November,  Rev.  S.  R.  Brown  and 
D.  B.  Simmons,  M.D.,  both  of  the  Reformed  Church  in 
America,  reached  Nagasaki,  where  they  were  joined  a 
month  later  by  Rev.  G.  F.  Verbeck,  of  the  same  Church. 
In  April  of  the  next  year  came  Rev.  J.  Goble,  who  had 
been  with  Perry's  Expedition  and  was  now  sent  by  the 
American  Baptist  Free  Missionary  Society.  Thus,  within 
a  year  from  the  opening  of  the  treaty-ports  to  foreign 
residence,  four  American  societies  were  represented  by 
five  ordained  and  two  medical  missionaries. 

2.  Diificulties  of  the  Early  Years. — The  pioneer  mis- 
sionaries were  in  circumstances  of  no  little  discourage- 
ment and  difficulty  for  several  years  after  they  entered 
upon  their  work.  The  government  viewed  them  with 
suspicion ;  the  people,  though  by  no  means  hostile,  were 
distant  and  timid,  and  all  classes  dreaded  Christianity  as 
a  pestilential  creed  whose  introduction  would  bring  mani- 


84  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

fold  evils  upon  the  country.  Official  spies  were  frequent- 
ly sent  to  the  missionaries,  ostensibly  to  make  friends  with 
them,  but  really  to  discover  what  object  these  unofficial 
and  non-trading  foreigners  had  in  coming  to  Japan.  One 
man  afterward  confessed  that  he  became  Dr.  Hepburn's 
teacher  in  the  hope  of  finding  a  good  opportunity  to  assas- 
sinate him.  Even  in  private  the  greatest  caution  was  nec- 
essary in  dealing  with  visitors;  for,  so  much  were  the 
consequences  of  being  suspected  of  favoring  Christianity 
feared,  that  whenever  the  subject  was  mentioned  to  a  Jap- 
anese he  would  involuntarily  put  his  hand  to  his  throat 
as  a  token  of  the  danger  to  which  the  introduction  of  such 
a  subject  exposed  him.  Some  young  men  who,  in  these 
early  days  came  to  a  missionary  to  learn  a  little  English, 
purchased  copies  of  a  book  called  "  The  Christian  Read- 
er," and  at  once  erased  the  word  **  Christian  "  from  the 
title  page  and  cover,  for  fear  it  should  be  noticed  by  others 
and  bring  them  into  trouble. 

3.  Opportunities  for  Usefulness. — Even  then,  when 
open  missionary  work  was  an  impossibility  and  any  at- 
tempt to  engage  in  it  would  have  invited  disaster,  the 
personal  influence  of  the  missionaries  was  making  itself 
felt,  and  the  disposal  by  them  of  numerous  copies  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  and  other  books  in  Chinese,  which  were 
imported  for  circulation  among  the  educated  classes — 
who  studied  and  read  Chinese  as  a  classical  language — 
carried  the  light  of  Christian  truth  to  places  far  away 
from  the  treaty  ports.  Almost  from  the  first  there  were 
a  few  earnest,  though  timid,  seekers  after  truth,  and  every 
year  their  number  increased.  A  door  of  usefulness  was 
also  opened  to  the  missionaries  by  the  desire  of  many 
young  men  to  receive  instruction  in  the  English  language. 
In  1 86 1  the  Shogun's  court  itself  sent  several  persons  to 
be  taught.  Many  who  have  since  held  high  offices  of 
state  or  other  places  of  influence  were  pupils  of  the  mis- 
sionaries. They  not  only  learned  to  read  English,  but 
some  of  them  became  Christians ;  while  others,  who  did 
not  accept  the  religion  of  their  instructors,  received  ideas 
in  regard  to  morals,  business,  education,  and  the  science 
of  government  that  affected  their  whole  tone  of  thought 
and  reappeared  in  many  of  the  reforms  that  they  after- 
ward instituted. 


MODERN  MISSIONS  8$ 

4.  ^A  Call  for  Prayer. — In  January,  1866,  "  a  little  band 
of  believers  of  various  nationalities  "  residing  in  Yoko- 
hama, who  had  been  observing  the  Week  of  Prayer,  issued 
'*  an  address  to  God's  people  throughout  the  world,  asking 
their  prayers  in  a  special  manner  for  Japan."  It  men- 
tioned some  favorable  changes  in  the  circumstances  of 
the  Missions ;  that  the  government  no  longer  sent  spies 
to  watch  the  missionaries,  but  began  to  repose  confidence 
in  them  by  employing  them  as  school-teachers ;  that  in 
the  school-rooms  and  in  the  houses  of  the  missionaries  the 
intelligent  young  men  who  came  to  learn  English  mani- 
fested a  readiness  to  talk  about  Christianity,  and  no  longer 
uttered  the  name  of  Jesus  with  bated  breath;  and  that 
some  of  them  went  daily  to  the  missionaries'  houses  "  in 
groups  of  from  two  or  three  to  six  or  seven,  to  read  the 
English  Bible,  preferring  this  to  the  study  of  school- 
books." 

5.  The  Laws  against  Christianity. — Whatever  change 
of  opinion  may  have  been  discernible  in  some  quarters, 
the  law  against  Christianity  was  still  unrepealed,  and  the 
Emperor's  government  seemed  bent  on  maintaining  it  in 
its  integrity.  Soon  after  the  Revolution  in  1868  the  laws 
of  the  Shogunate,  which  had  been  posted  on  the  notice- 
boards  in  every  town  and  village,  were  replaced  by  those 
of  the  new  Imperial  Government.  There  was,  however, 
little  change  in  the  enactment  concerning  Christianity — 
*'  The  evil  sect,  called  Christian,  is  strictly  prohibited. 
Suspicious  persons  should  be  reported  to  the  proper  of- 
ficers, and  rewards  wall  be  given."  A  few  months  later 
a  further  decree  appeared :  "  With  respect  to  the  Chris- 
tian sect,  the  existing  prohibition  must  be  strictly  ob- 
served.    Evil  sects  are  strictly  prohibited." 

6.  Persecutions. — That  these  laws  were  not  meaning- 
less was  shown,  as  already  described,  by  the  treatment  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Christians  discovered  in  Kyushu. 
Other  proofs  of  the  government's  hatred  of  Christianity 
were  given.  The  man  employed  by  Rev.  Mr.  Ensor  as 
a  teacher  was  arrested  in  1870,  and  remained  in  prison 
for  two  and  a  half  years.  The  next  year  Rev.  O.  H.  Gu- 
lick's  teacher  was  arrested,  together  with  the  latter's  wife. 
For  a  long  time  it  was  impossible  to  find  where  they  had 
been  sent.    The  teacher  died  a  few  months  later  in  prison. 


86  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

In  1872  a  person  who  assisted  Mr.  Gulick  to  rent  a  house 
in  Kyoto  was  arrested  and  charged  with  the  offence  of 
trying  to  have  the  city  opened  to  Christianity.  He  and 
his  family  were  imprisoned  in  his  own  house. 

7.  Removal  of  the  Edicts  against  Christianity. — The 
Embassy,  headed  by  Iwakura,  which  was  sent  in  1871  to 
America  and  Europe,  saw  that  the  attitude  of  the  Japa- 
nese Government  toward  Christianity  was  injuring  their 
country  in  the  eyes  of  Western  nations  and  making  it  im- 
possible to  gain  desired  concessions.  It  was  in  accord- 
ance with  the  representations  made  by  Iwakura  and  oth- 
ers that  the  edicts  were  withdrawn  from  the  notice-boards. 
The  action  of  the  government  was  equivocal.  It  did  not 
repeal  the  law  against  Christianity;  but,  just  as  the  laws 
respecting  murder,  arson,  and  robbery  remained  in  force, 
notwithstanding  the  removal  at  the  same  time  of  the  par- 
ticular prohibitions  respecting  them,  so  was  it  with  the 
prohibition  of  Christianity.  Indeed,  officers  were  told  to 
warn  the  people  against  supposing  that  the  law  was 
changed  because  the  notices  were  no  longer  exhibited  as 
formerly.  In  spite  of  these  explanations,  the  people  soon 
began  to  regard  what  had  been  done  as  equivalent  to  a 
repeal  of  the  edicts,  and  the  government,  anxious  to  avoid 
offending  the  Christian  sentiment  of  Western  nations, 
was  not  averse  to  such  a  construction  being  put  on  its 
action,  and  was  better  able  to  ignore  breaches  of  the  law 
when  its  existence  was  less  conspicuous. 

8.  Increasing  Toleration. — The  central  government  was 
every  year  pursuing  a  more  liberal  and  enlightened  pol- 
icy, though  local  officials  were  in  many  cases  slow  to  fol- 
low. Ostensibly  acting  in  the  interests  of  public  order, 
the  latter  had  numerous  opportunities  of  throwing  ob- 
stacles in  the  way  of  the  open  propagation  of  Christianity, 
and  of  intimidating  or  oppressing  those  who  favored  it. 
Eventually  the  views  of  the  party  of  progress  gained  such 
ascendancy  that  all  open  official  opposition  ceased  and 
toleration  became  general.  Buildings  were  set  apart  for 
Christian  worship,  not  only  for  foreigners,  but  for  na- 
tives, not  only  at  the  treaty  ports,  but  in  towns  and  vil- 
lages far  removed  from  them.  Little  difficulty  was  ex- 
perienced after  1880  in  holding  public  meetings  in  the- 
atres and  other  large  buildings.  Christian  literature  was 
exposed  for  sale  and  openly  circulated  by  colporteurs. 


MODERN  MISSIONS  Sj 

In  1884  there  was  a  great  advance  in  religious  toleration 
by  the  issue  of  notifications  in  regard  to  registration  and 
burial.  Until  that  time  every  citizen  was  registered  as  a 
Buddhist  or  Shintoist,  and  difficulties  were  sometimes 
experienced  by  Christians  who,  in  removing  their  resi- 
dences, wished  to  get  their  names  transferred  from  the 
register  in  one  place  to  that  in  another.  A  still  greater 
difficulty  was  sometimes  experienced  in  burying  the  Chris- 
tian dead.  In  some  places,  where  public  cemeteries  had 
been  established,  there  was  no  such  trouble,  as  the  ceme- 
teries were  open  to  all,  of  whatever  sect  or  creed,  and 
the  employment  of  a  Buddhist  or  Shinto  priest  was  op- 
tional. In  other  places  it  was  quite  different.  In  1875 
two  Japanese  who  had  taken  part  in  a  Christian  funeral 
without  Buddhist  or  Shinto  rites  at  Tokyo  were  sum- 
moned before  one  of  the  courts,  severely  reprimanded, 
and  threatened  with  a  fine.  As  most  of  the  burial-grounds 
were  connected  with  Buddhist  temples  and  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  priesthood,  the  difficulty  was  increased  by  the 
tenacity  with  which  the  priests  very  naturally  clung  to 
their  prescriptive  rights  and  dues.  In  process  of  time 
Christian  burials  were  allowed  to  take  place  in  some  of 
the  Buddhist  burial-grounds  with  the  consent  of  the  priest, 
who  received  the  customary  fee,  and,  to  accommodate 
those  concerned,  went  out  for  the  day,  leaving  the  Chris- 
tians free  to  bury  the  remains  of  the  departed  with  their 
own  rites.  Not  all  were  so  obliging.  In  one  place  the 
wife  of  a  Christian  died  and  her  body  remained  for  several 
days  unburied,  the  priests  refusing  to  allow  the  interment 
until  the  husband  would  promise  to  have  nothing  more 
to  do  with  Christianity.  By  the  notifications  just  men- 
tioned, all  religious  distinctions  in  registration  and  burial 
were  abolished,  and  provision  was  made  for  the  establish- 
ment of  public  cemeteries  to  be  open  to  all. 

9.  Christian  Teachers. — Mention  has  been  made  of  the 
work  of  the  missionaries  in  connection  with  the  teaching 
of  English.  There  were  other  teachers  who  were  em- 
ployed by  the  Japanese  to  give  instruction  in  schools  that 
were  established  by  the  chiefs  of  several  clans  or  after- 
ward by  the  government.  Unquestionably,  the  toleration 
that  so  soon  obtained  was  in  some  degree  due  to  the 
spread,  by  the  instrumentality  of  some  of  these  teachers. 


88  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

among  the  governing  and  literary  class,  of  correct  views 
of  the  high  character  of  the  Christian  religion.  One  of 
these  gentlemen,  Mr.  E.  W.  Clark,  in  his  book,  '*  Life  and 
Adventures  in  Japan,"  incidentally  gives  some  interesting 
glimpses  of  the  exercise  of  this  kind  of  Christian  influence. 
He  was  engaged  as  a  teacher  of  science  at  the  city  of 
Shizuoka.  When  he  reached  Japan  from  America,  he 
found  in  the  agreement  he  was  to  sign  a  clause  forbidding 
him  to  say  anything  about  Christianity.  "  It  was  a  great 
dilemma,"  he  says,  "  for  I  had  spent  all  my  money  in 
coming  to  Japan  and  getting  ready  to  go  into  the  interior." 
Some  of  his  friends  urged  him  to  accept  the  condition, 
and  his  Japanese  interpreter  recommended  him  to  sign 
the  agreement  and  then  disregard  it.  He  felt  that  a  great 
principle  was  at  stake,  and  stood  firm.  He  said  that  unless 
the  clause  was  struck  out  he  must  refuse  to  go.  "  It  is 
impossible,"  he  added,  *'  for  a  Christian  to  dwell  three 
years  in  the  midst  of  a  pagan  people,  and  yet  keep  entire 
silence  on  the  subject  nearest  his  heart."  His  firmness 
triumphed  and  the  clause  was  struck  out.  He  began  the 
very  first  Sunday  he  was  in  Shizuoka,  and  conducted  a 
Bible-class  the  whole  time  he  was  there. 

Another  American  teacher  in  the  city  of  Kumamoto 
commenced  to  teach  a  Bible-class  in  his  own  house.  In 
January,  1876,  a  number  of  those  who  had  attended  it 
went  to  a  hill  near  the  city.  There,  as  afterward  described 
by  one  of  them,  "  They  made  a  solemn  covenant  together 
that,  as  they  had  been  blessed  by  God  in  advance  of  all 
their  countrymen,  they  would  labor  to  enlighten  the  dark- 
ness of  the  Empire  by  preaching  the  gospel,  even  at  the 
sacrifice  of  their  lives.  They  prayed  kneeling,  and  wrote 
an  oath-paper,  on  which  they  signed  and  sealed  their 
names."  A  fierce  persecution  broke  out.  Students  were 
removed  from  the  school  to  be  imprisoned  in  their  homes 
or  sent  away  to  distant  places.  A  number  of  them  after 
some  time  reached  Kyoto,  where  they  entered  the  school 
that  had  just  been  established  by  Joseph  Neesima  and  the 
missionaries  of  the  American  Board.  After  graduation 
they  became  effective  preachers  and  teachers.  Some  of 
them  continue  to  be  earnest  Christian  workers.  Of  others, 
even  of  some  who  were  apparently  among  the  most  de- 
voted, it  must  with  sorrow  be  recorded  that  they  seem  to 


MODERN  MISSIONS  89 

have  wandered  far  from  the  faith  that  they  once  pro- 
fessed. Those  who  knew  them  in  their  earHer  days  can- 
not but  pray  that  they  who  once  led  others  to  the  Saviour 
may  even  yet  return  to  Him  whom  they  in  so  solemn  a 
way  promised  to  serve. 

President  Clark  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Col- 
lege was  invited  to  come  to  Japan  to  aid  in  the  establish- 
ment of  a  similar  school  at  Sapporo,  in  the  island  of  Yezo. 
He  was  at  first  prohibited  by  the  Governor  from  speaking 
to  the  students  about  Christianity  or  giving  Bibles  to 
them;  but  the  prohibition  was  removed  when  President 
Clark  said  that  he  did  not  know  how  to  teach  ethics  satis- 
factorily without  the  use  of  the  Scriptures.  Many  of  the 
young  men  became  Christians  through  his  influence. 

10.  The  First  Converts. — The  first  Japanese  to  receive 
baptism  in  his  own  country  from  a  Protestant  missionary 
was  Yano  Riyu,  who  had  been  a  teacher  of  the  language 
to  one  of  the  missionaries  since  i860.  He  was  baptized 
at  his  own  house  in  Yokohama  in  the  presence  of  his  fam- 
ily and  with  their  full  consent  in  October,  1864,  and  short- 
ly afterward  died. 

The  three  who  were  next  baptized  had  in  a  strange  way 
been  led  to  a  knowledge  of  Christianity.  One  of  them, 
named  Wakasa,  was  an  official  of  high  rank,  who  was  sent 
with  a  force  of  men  to  patrol  the  port  of  Nagasaki  while 
English  and  French  men-of-war  were  anchored  there,  a 
few  months  after  Perry  had  negotiated  the  American 
treaty.  One  day  he  noticed  a  book  floating  upon  the  water 
near  the  shore  and  ordered  one  of  the  men  to  get  it.  None 
of  the  party  could  tell  what  the  book  was.  The  curiosity 
of  the  nobleman  was  so  excited  that  when  the  foreign 
ships  had  departed  and  he  had  returned  home  he  sent  one 
of  his  retainers  to  Nagasaki  to  find  out  about  the  book. 
He  thus  learned  that  it  was  a  Dutch  Bible.  Learning 
that  a  Chinese  version  of  the  same  book  had  been  pub- 
lished in  Shanghai,  he  secretly  sent  a  man  thither  to  pur- 
chase a  copy.  Wakasa,  with  his  younger  brother  and 
some  friends,  commenced  an  earnest  study  of  the  volume. 
In  1862  the  brother  went  to  Nagasaki,  hoping  to  get  from 
the  foreigners  some  aid  in  understanding  the  Bible,  and 
he  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Rev.  G.  F.  Verbeck 
of  the  Reformed  Mission.    Afterward  Wakasa  sent  an- 


90  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

Other  relative  to  Nagasaki  to  study  English  and  the  Bible. 
This  man  carried  questions  and  answers  back  and  forth 
between  the  two  places,  and  in  this  way  the  strange  Bible 
class  was  carried  on  for  three  years.  In  1866  the  two 
brothers,  with  the  other  relative,  went  to  Nagasaki  and 
were  baptized.  On  returning  home  they  reported  to  their 
feudal  lord  what  they  had  done.  He  was  inclined  to  per- 
mit them  to  do  as  they  pleased,  but  his  superiors,  hearing 
of  what  had  happened,  ordered  that  they  be  punished. 
Little  was  done,  however,  except  to  burn  some  of  the 
books.  Wakasa  died  in  1874.  The  zeal  that  he  had 
shown  for  the  conversion  of  his  children  and  friends  was 
proved  by  fruits  gathered  in  later  years. 

Other  isolated  converts  were  gained  from  time  to  time, 
but  up  to  the  spring  of  1872,  a  period  of  nearly  thirteen 
years  after  the  arrival  of  the  first  Protestant  missionaries, 
only  ten  Japanese  had  received  baptism  at  their  hands. 

11.  The  First  Church. — The  first  Japanese  church  was 
organized  at  Yokohama  on  March  10,  1872,  nearly  a  year 
before  the  withdrawal  of  the  edicts  against  Christianity. 
Its  first  membership  embraced  nine  young  men  who  then 
received  baptism  and  two  who  had  been  previously  bap- 
tized. It  was  called  "  The  Church  of  Christ  in  Japan." 
The  first  article  of  its  simple  constitution  read :  "  Our 
church  does  not  belong  to  any  sect  whatever ;  it  believes 
only  in  the  name  of  Christ,  in  w^hom  all  are  one ;  it  be- 
lieves that  all  who  take  the  Bible  as  their  guide  and  who 
diligently  study  it  are  the  servants  of  Christ  and  our 
brethren.  For  this  reason  all  believers  on  earth  belong 
to  the  family  of  Christ  in  the  bonds  of  brotherly  love." 

12.  Results  to  the  End  of  18 12. — The  years  from  1859 
to  1872  formed  what  has  been  called  the  "  Period  of  Prep- 
aration." Though  mention  has  been  made  of  a  few  events 
that  happened  at  a  later  date,  it  will  be  well  to  look  back 
and  see  what  had  been  accomplished  during  this  time. 
In  addition  to  the  four  missionary  societies  already  men- 
tioned, the  Church  Missionary  Society  of  England  and 
the  American  Board  had  commenced  work  in  1869,  while, 
in  1871,  the  Women's  Union  Missionary  Society  of  Amer- 
ica entered  Yokohama,  where  it  founded,  during  the  next 
year,  a  school  for  girls  which  is  known  as  the  *'  American 
Mission  Home."    The  missionaries  had  during  these  years 


MODERN  MISSIONS  gi 

made  considerable  progress  in  the  language,  and  also  pre- 
pared books,  among  which  should  be  specially  mentioned 
Dr.  Hepburn's  Dictionary,  to  facilitate  the  study  of  others. 
They  had  sold  many  thousand  Chinese  Bibles  and  other 
Christian  books,  had  made  a  beginning  in  the  translation 
of  the  Bible  into  Japanese,  and  issued  a  few  tracts.  They 
had  engaged  in  medical  and  educational  work,  and  had 
gained  the  respect  and  confidence  of  the  people  about  them. 
Above  all,  they  had  been  the  instruments  of  bringing  a 
few  persons  to  an  acceptance  of  Christ,  and  had  seen  the 
formation  of  the  first  church. 

13.  The  Period  of  Popularity. — The  year  1873  marked 
the  commencement  of  a  new  epoch.  As  has  already  been 
said,  the  edicts  against  Christianity  were  taken  down  at 
this  time.  However  the  government  explained  their  re- 
moval, the  people  considered  that  they  no  longer  needed 
to  regard  Christianity  as  a  prohibited  religion.  About 
the  same  time  there  came  from  Mr.  Mori  Arinori,  the 
ambassador  in  Washington,  a  draft  for  a  proposed  "  Re- 
ligious Charter,"  granting  full  religious  liberty,  and  also 
a  pamphlet  in  which,  while  telling  what  he  had  seen  of 
Protestant  Christianity,  he  said :  "  The  growing  influ- 
ence of  the  Bible  is  remarkable  and  makes  itself  felt  every- 
where. The  Bible  contains  an  overpowering  force  of  lib- 
erty and  justice,  guided  by  the  united  strength  of  wisdom 
and  goodness."  Other  influences  tended  to  make  the  offi- 
cial and  educated  classes  regard  religion  with  more  favor. 

There  began  to  spring  up  a  strong  desire  to  adopt  West- 
ern customs  and  ideas.  Protestant  Christianity,  being 
the  religion  of  England  and  America,  was  at  least  worthy 
of  attention.  It  soon  became  easy  to  gather  audiences  to 
listen  to  preaching.  The  missionaries  had  numerous  call- 
ers, who  came  to  inquire  about  machinery,  electricity,  Eu- 
ropean customs,  Christianity,  and  other  things  that  in  the 
minds  of  the  people  were  closely  associated.  In  a  few 
years  Christian  schools  for  young  men  and  young  women 
became  crowded.  The  movement  continued  to  gain 
strength  until,  in  1884,  some  statesmen  and  public  leaders 
began  to  urge  that  Christianity  be  adopted  as  the  national 
religion,  one  of  them  proposing  that  the  Emperor  at  once 
receive  baptism.  There  were  large  additions  to  the 
churches,  and  many  were  admitted  whose  mouths  uttered 


§2  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

devout  confessions  while  their  hearts  were  little  affected 
by  the  truth.  In  looking  back  upon  those  days  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  with  many  persons  the  Christian  religion  was 
regarded  chiefly  as  a  means  of  advancing  civilization  and 
bringing  good  to  the  nation.  Japanese  preachers  and  for- 
eign missionaries  had  much  to  say  of  the  fruits  of  Chris- 
tianity as  shown  in  the  history  and  present  condition  of 
Western  lands.  An  appeal  to  patriotism  was  that  which 
found  the  most  ready  response,  and  there  was  a  temptation 
to  use  it  too  constantly.  Statesmen  and  politicians  who 
favored  constitutional  government  and  popular  rights  in- 
vited preachers  to  hold  meetings  in  the  cities  where  they 
lived,  believing  that  the  spread  of  Christianity  would  tend 
to  advance  their  ends. 

14.  Opposition  of  the  Buddhists. — It  must  not  be  sup- 
posed that  all  this  could  go  on  without  exciting  opposition. 
In  some  places  the  churches  or  the  houses  of  the  Chris- 
tians were  stoned,  while  preachers  were  occasionally  as- 
saulted. Buddhist  priests  held  meetings  in  which  they 
denounced  Christianity  and  declared  that  those  who  ac- 
cepted it  were  traitors  who  wished  to  deliver  their  country 
into  the  hands  of  foreigners.  They  formed  societies  whose 
members  promised  that  they  would  have  nothing  to  do 
with  Christianity.  Some  went  so  far  as  to  oppose  every- 
thing foreign.  One  priest  travelled  about  the  country 
urging  the  people  not  to  use  kerosene  oil,  since  it  came 
from  a  foreign  land,  and  they  ought  to  be  satisfied  with 
the  light  that  their  fathers  had  used.  Several  tracts 
against  Christianity  were  issued  by  the  Buddhists,  and 
in  some  cases  foreigners  were  employed  to  compose  them. 
Colonel  Olcott,  the  American  theosophist,  who  visited 
Japan  in  1888,  was  hailed  as  a  valuable  ally  and  employed 
to  give  lectures  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  This 
last  experiment  did  not  prove  very  satisfactory,  so  the 
remaining  engagements  for  lectures  were  cancelled  and 
he  went  on  his  way.  The  Buddhists  also  entered  the  polit- 
ical arena.  When  several  Christians  were  nominated  for 
the  first  Imperial  Parliament,  the  priests  put  forth  stren- 
uous efforts  against  them.  It  was  a  bitter  disappointment 
to  them  that  a  Christian  was  elected  in  Kyoto,  their  strong- 
hold, where  they  had  been  most  active  in  their  opposition. 

A  more  commendable  way  of  upholding  Buddhism  was 


MODERN  MISSIONS  93 

by  the  imitation  of  Christian  institutions.  Where  Chris- 
tians established  schools  for  young  men,  the  Buddhists 
built  others  under  their  own  control ;  when  the  Christians 
had  succeeded  in  arousing  an  interest  in  the  education  of 
girls,  the  Buddhists,  unmindful  of  the  low  estimate  they 
had  always  put  on  women,  opened  schools  for  girls,  and 
in  the  same  way  they  speedily  imitated  Young  Men's 
Christian  Associations,  women's  prayer-meetings,  orphan- 
ages, temperance  societies,  summer  schools,  and  other  in- 
stitutions inaugurated  by  the  Christians.  It  has  some- 
times seemed  as  though  one  of  the  most  marked  results 
of  missionary  effort  in  Japan  has  been,  as  remarked  by 
the  Japan  Mail,  to  give  a  new  impetus  to  religious  life 
in  general,  even  to  Buddhism,  whose  adherents  could  be 
heard  saying,  "  If  we  do  not  arouse  ourselves,  we  cannot 
hope  to  hold  our  own  over  against  this  energetic,  indefat- 
igable propaganda." 

15.  The  Reaction. — The  great  movement  in  favor  of 
Christianity  reached  its  height  about  the  year  1888.  Soon 
thereafter  came  a  reaction.  Its  immediate  occasion  is  to 
be  found  in  several  circumstances  that  tended  to  arouse 
a  strong  nationalistic  spirit.  Great  irritation  was  caused 
in  connection  with  attempts  to  revise  the  treaties.  Certain 
untoward  events  connected  with  the  introduction  of  West- 
ern customs  increased  the  feeling.  Conservatives  were 
not  slow  to  improve  the  opportunity,  and  they  succeeded 
in  stirring  up  a  strong  anti-foreign  sentiment.  "  Preserve 
the  national  spirit  "  became  a  powerful  watch-cry.  Chris- 
tianity, still  regarded  as  a  Western  religion,  now  shared 
the  disadvantages  as  it  had  before  reaped  the  benefits  of 
such  a  view.  Pupils  left  the  Christian  schools,  people  no 
longer  crowded  the  preaching-places,  there  were  few  ad- 
ditions to  the  churches,  and  it  was  necessary  to  strike 
from  the  rolls  the  names  of  many  who  no  longer  lived 
Christian  lives  nor  retained  a  Christian  belief.  The  na- 
tionalistic sentiment  affected  even  Christian  ministers 
and  prominent  laymen ;  so  that  many,  who  perhaps  de- 
nied that  they  were  moved  by  an  anti-foreign  spirit,  took 
pleasure  in  criticising  the  missionaries,  declared  that 
Christianity  must  take  on  a  Japanese  form,  and  in  other 
ways  asserted  what  they  called  "  independence." 

16.  Doctrinal  Discussions. — Another  disturbing  influ- 


94  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

cnce  came  from  the  shaking  of  doctrinal  behefs.  The 
leading  Japanese  pastors  and  evangelists  could  read  Eng- 
lish with  more  or  less  ease.  They  thus  knew  of  the  theo- 
logical unrest  of  the  present  day  and  were  affected  by  it. 
Unitarian  missionaries  from  America,  especially,  pro- 
claimed their  views  in  tracts  and  magazines  that  they 
sent  to  the  preachers  and  prominent  laymen.  It  is  not 
strange  that  the  faith  of  some  was  shaken.  To  many 
Japanese  it  is  a  recommendation  for  any  theory  that  it 
is  new.  The  desire  of  some  to  show  their  independence 
of  former  teachers  made  them  more  ready  to  accept 
strange  doctrines. 

Young  men  who  had  been  to  America  for  theological 
education  were  asked  on  their  return  to  tell  what  they 
had  learned.  To  tell  of  views  like  those  commonly  held 
by  the  churches  would  be  akin  to  confessing  that  nothing 
had  been  gained  during  the  months  or  years  of  absence, 
and  so  they  told  of  some  new  theories  they  had  heard. 
As  questions  were  asked  and  the  matter  discussed,  the 
returned  student  would  find  himself  defending  the  novel 
view,  whether  he  had  previously  adopted  it  or  not,  and 
thus  ere  long  he  would  be  known  as  its  advocate,  would 
deliver  lectures  upon  it  at  summer  schools,  and  would 
preach  upon  it  whenever  called  to  supply  a  pulpit. 
Views  that  might  have  done  little  harm  in  communities 
that  had  long  been  instructed  in  Christian  doctrines  as- 
sumed an  exaggerated  importance  and  led  men  to  give 
up  apparently  all  their  early  faith. 

17.  The  Commercial  Spirit. — Another  weakening  influ- 
ence of  recent  years  has  come  from  the  growth  of  the 
commercial  spirit.  The  wonderful  increase  of  trade  and 
manufactures  has  had  its  influence  upon  all  classes.  A 
desire  to  make  money  has  drawn  some  away  from  higher 
things.  The  claims  of  business  have  led  some  members 
of  the  church  to  absent  themselves  from  meetings,  made 
them  careless  about  keeping  the  Sabbath,  and  sometimes 
brought  them  to  acts  inconsistent  with  Christian  standards 
of  morality. 

18.  Interference  with  Religious  Liberty. — An  article 
in  the  new  Constitution  of  Japan  declares  that  "  Japanese 
subjects  shall,  within  limits  not  prejudicial  to  peace  and 
order,  and  not  antagonistic  to  their  duties  as  subjects. 


MODERN  MISSIONS  95 

enjoy  freedom  of  religious  belief."  This  article  has  great- 
ly strengthened  the  position  of  the  Christians.  Its  spirit, 
however,  has  not  always  been  observed,  even  by  those 
connected  with  the  government.  The  commanders  of 
some  of  the  garrisons  let  it  be  known  a  few  years  ago 
that  soldiers,  when  off  duty,  must  not  attend  Christian 
services  and  must  not  read  Christian  books.  Some  sol- 
diers and  inferior  officers,  who  were  members  of  churches, 
felt  that  they  could  not  attend  meetings  without  being 
made  in  some  roundabout  way  to  suffer  for  it.  The  war 
with  China  put  an  end  to  this  persecution,  at  least  for  a 
time,  and  also  opened  a  new  field  for  Christian  work. 
Permission  was  obtained  by  the  agent  of  the  Bible  So- 
cieties to  distribute  the  Scriptures  in  the  army  and  navy. 
About  125,000  volumes  were  thus  circulated.  Christian 
workers  were  allowed  to  visit  the  hospitals,  and  six  pas- 
tors  were  permitted  to  go  to  the  front,  carrying  many 
comforts  to  the  soldiers  and  doing  religious  work  among 
them. 

Much  opposition  to  Christianity  has  been  felt  in  con- 
nection with  the  schools.  A  few  years  since  what  had 
before  been  flourishing  Sabbath-schools  lost  most  of  their 
pupils.  Inquiry  showed  that  the  children  had  been  ad- 
vised by  their  teachers  in  the  public  schools  to  stay  away. 
The  fact  that  such  advice  was  given  in  many  parts  of 
the  country  at  about  the  same  time  seems  to  show  that 
it  was  given  in  obedience  to  directions  from  high  officials. 
Persons  have  been  refused  positions  as  teachers  simply 
on  the  ground  of  their  being  Christians,  and  Christian 
pupils  have  also  been  made  to  suffer  in  various  ways.  In 
a  few  cases  the  injustice  was  so  plainly  a  violation  of  the 
Constitution  that  agitation  in  the  newspapers  and  by 
direct  appeal  secured  justice;  but  in  other  cases  nothing 
could  be  done. 

In  one  other  noteworthy  particular  the  Department  of 
Education  seems  to  be  acting  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the 
Constitution.  Pupils  of  the  higher  schools  established 
by  the  government  are  exempt  from  military  service,  aad 
the  privilege  has  been  extended  to  a  few  private  schools. 
When  the  trustees  of  a  Christian  academy  asked  the  same 
favor  they  were  told  that  it  could  not  be  granted  unless 
the  school  ceased  to  be  professedly  Christian.    This  ci-eci- 


9^  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

sion  IS  not  against  Christianity  as  such,  for  Buddhist 
schools  meet  the  same  refusal,  it  being  said  that  educa- 
tion must  be  divorced  from  religion.  If  the  Constitution 
would  prohibit  a  different  treatment  of  an  individual  be- 
cause he  is  religious  rather  than  agnostic,  it  would  seem 
as  though  it  ought  to  prevent  any  discrimination  against 
an  institution  because  of  its  religion. 

19.  The  Rescript  on  Education. — An  Imperial  Edict 
on  Education,  which  was  issued  in  1890,  has  been  utilized 
by  many  enemies  of  Christianity  for  making  an  attack 
upon  it.  It  is  claimed  that  Christian  ethics  are  not  in 
harmony  with  those  of  this  document,  and  some  say  that 
those  who  acknowledge  any  other  standard  of  morality 
as  having  equal  authority  with  the  Edict  are  disloyal. 
In  the  schools,  once  a  year  or  oftener,  it  is  read  with 
much  ceremony,  while  the  pupils,  with  their  heads  rever- 
ently bowed,  listen  to  its  words.  Since  it  is  regarded  with 
so  much  honor,  and  references  to  it  are  frequently  made 
in  the  correspondence  of  missionaries,  it  will  be  well  to 
insert  the  authorized  translation  of  the  document. 


Our  Ancestors  founded  the  State  on  a  vast  basis,  while  their 
virtues  were  deeply  implanted  ;  and  our  subjects,  by  their  una- 
nimity in  their  great  loyalty  and  filial  affection,  have  in  all  ages 
shown  them  in  perfection.  Such  is  the  essential  beauty  of  Our 
national  polity,  and  such  too  is  the  true  spring  of  Our  educational 
system.  You,  Our  beloved  subjects,  be  filial  to  your  parents, 
affectionate  to  your  brothers,  be  loving  husbands  and  wives,  and 
truthful  to  your  friends.  Conduct  yourselves  with  modesty,  and 
be  benevolent  to  all.  Develop  your  intellectual  faculties  and  per- 
fect your  moral  powers  by  gaining  knowledge  and  by  acquiring  a 
profession.  Further,  promote  the  public  interests  and  advance 
the  public  affairs ;  ever  respect  the  national  constitution  and 
obey  the  laws  of  the  country ;  and  in  case  of  emergency,  cour- 
ageously sacrifice  yourselves  to  the  public  good.  Thus  offer 
every  support  to  Our  Imperial  dynasty  which  shall  be  as  lasting 
as  the  universe.  You  will  then  not  only  be  Our  most  loyal  sub- 
jects, but  will  be  enabled  to  exhibit  the  noble  character  of  your 
ancestors. 

Such  are  the  testaments  left  us  by  Our  Ancestors,  which  must 
be  observed  alike  by  their  descendants  and  subjects.  These 
precepts  are  perfect  throughout  all  ages  and  of  universal  appli- 
cation. It  is  Our  desire  to  bear  them  in  Our  heart  in  common 
with  you,  Our  subjects,  to  the  end  that  we  may  constantly  pos- 
sess these  virtues. 


MODERN  MISSIONS  Off 

20.  Charges  against  the  Loyalty  of  Christians. — 
Though  the  bravery  and  devotion  shown  by  many  Chris- 
tian soldiers  during  the  war  with  China  would  seem  suf- 
ficient to  rebut  the  charge  that  Christians  cannot  be  loyal, 
this  is  still  a  favorite  accusation  to  make  against  them. 
In  1897  a  new  movement,  which  seems  to  be  in  the  inter- 
ests of  a  revived  and  modified  Shintoism,  was  inaugu- 
rated. Its  promoters,  among  whom  were  numbered  pro- 
fessors in  the  Imperial  University  and  other  influential 
men,  issued  a  challenge  to  all  Japanese  Christians  asking 
them  to  return  plain,  unequivocal  answers  to  certain  ques- 
tions. The  first  three  were:  ''  (i)  Can  the  worship  of 
His  Sacred  Majesty,  the  Emperor,  which  every  loyal 
Japanese  performs,  be  reconciled  with  the  worship  of 
God  and  Christ  by  Christians?  (2)  Can  the  existence 
of  authorities  that  are  quite  independent  of  the  Japanese 
state,  such  as  that  of  God,  Christ,  the  Bible,  the  Pope,  the 
Head  of  the  Greek  Church  (Czar),  be  regarded  as  harm- 
less? (3)  Can  the  Japanese  who  is  the  faithful  servant 
of  Christ  be  regarded  at  the  same  time  as  the  faithful  ser- 
vant of  the  Emperor  and  a  true  friend  of  His  Majesty's 
faithful  subjects?  Or,  to  put  it  in  another  way,  Is  our 
Emperor  to  follow  in  the  wake  of  Western  emperors  and 
to  pray,  '  Son  of  God,  have  mercy  on  me  '  ?  " 

21.  Progress  during  the  Time  of  Reaction. — Though 
various  influences,  such  as  have  been  mentioned,  hin- 
dered the  growth  of  the  Church,  it  must  not  be  thought 
that  no  progress  was  made.  The  sifting  process  that  took 
from  the  churches  many  who  were  not  true  believers  has 
had  its  advantages.  What  shook  the  faith  of  some  made 
that  of  others  stronger  and  more  intelligent.  The  gross 
immoralities  into  which  some  fell  who  were  once  preach- 
ers, but  had  wandered  far  from  the  faith,  showed  to  others 
how  necessary  it  is  to  cling  close  to  the  divine  Saviour. 
The  necessity  of  more  care  in  admitting  persons  to  church- 
membership  has  been  made  plain.  Though  it  has  been 
less  easy  than  it  once  was  to  get  people  to  attend  preaching 
services,  Christian  ideas  have  more  and  more  found  their 
way  into  the  minds  of  the  people.  In  the  secular  period- 
icals there  is  a  frequent  use  of  Christian  phrases,  or  even 
of  verses  from  the  Bible,  showing  that  new  thoughts  are 
influencing  the  minds  of  men.     Knowledge  of  Western 


98  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION' 

lands  and  Western  literature  is  familiarizing  educated 
people  with  new  ways  of  regarding  the  universe  and 
mankind.  Probably  many  who  would  not  care  to  ac- 
knowledge it  have  almost  unconsciously  come  to  a  belief 
in  one  God  Who  rules  the  world,  and  toward  Whom  they 
have  duties.  When,  with  clearer  eyes,  we  can  look 
back  over  the  completed  history  of  the  evangelization  of 
Japan,  we  may  find  that  the  years  which  seemed  so  full 
of  difficulties  and  discouragements  were  really  as  fruitful 
as  those  when  men  seemed  eager  to  hear  the  Gospel 
preached  and  when  large  numbers  were  seeking  admission 
to  the  churches. 


X 
Methods  of  Work 

The  missionary,  while  home  on  furlough,  is  frequently 
questioned  about  the  way  in  which  he  conducts  his  work, 
and  a  chapter  upon  this  subject  may  help  to  present  in 
a  clearer  light  many  things  connected  with  missionary 
effort  in  Japan.  Let  us  then  picture  to  ourselves  a  young 
missionary  who  has  just  landed  in  the  country,  and  con- 
sider how  he  will  do  his  part  in  building  up  God's  king- 
dom there.  At  times  we  shall  pause  to  consider  how  those 
who  preceded  him  did  their  work. 

I.  Study  of  the  Language — i.  Its  Necessity. — As 
the  newly  arrived  missionary  sees  the  throngs  passing 
along  the  streets,  he  longs  to  tell  them  the  Story  of  the 
Cross.  Yet,  if  he  speaks  to  them,  they  understand  noth- 
ing of  what  he  says.  They  are  evidently  talking  with 
each  other,  but  he  does  not  know  even  the  subject  of  their 
conversation.  It  is  as  though  a  great  gulf  separated 
them  from  him.  Evidently  the  first  work  to  be  attempted 
by  him  is  the  bridging  of  the  gulf — in  other  words,  he 
must  study  their  language.  Some,  indeed,  have  worked 
through  interpreters,  but  such  a  method  is  unsatisfactory. 
As  a  rule,  it  is  only  some  famous  man,  delivering  but  one 
or  two  addresses  in  a  city,  who  can  draw  many  hearers 
besides  those  who  come  as  students  of  English,  desiring 
to  train  their  ears  to  catch  the  meaning  of  what  is  uttered 
in  a  foreign  tongue.  Moreover,  good  interpreters  are  not 
easily  found,  and  the  speaker  would  often  be  troubled  if 
he  knew  how  those  whom  he  employs  transform  his 
thought,  either  because  they  do  not  understand  his  mean- 
ing or  think  that  they  can  improve  upon  his  treatment 
of  the  subject.  The  person  who  expects  to  engage  in  per- 
manent work  will  probably  find  it  better  not  to  depend, 
even  temporarily,  on  such  aid.    By  doing  so  he  lessens  the 

99 


lOO  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

incentive  to  study,  and  those  who  commence  by  depending 
upon  another  often  find  it  harder  to  trust  to  their  own 
efforts. 

2.  Methods  of  Study. — In  the  study  of  the  language 
each  missionary  usually  employs  his  own  so-called  "  teach- 
er," but  the  chances  are  that  the  latter  knows  little  about 
how  to  impart  instruction,  and  the  learner  must  invent  his 
own  ways  of  getting  desired  information  from  him.  Un- 
fortunately, Japanese  ideas  of  propriety  prevent  the  aver- 
age teacher  from  correcting  mistakes ;  very  likely  he  will 
adopt  the  erroneous  expressions  of  his  pupil  in  order  to 
make  himself  more  easily  understood  by  the  latter.  Some 
missions,  having  found  men  unusually  well  fitted  for  the 
work,  permanently  employ  them  to  teach  the  language  to 
newcomers.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
whether  it  is  better  at  the  very  commencement  to  have 
a  teacher  who  understands  English,  or  to  take  one  wholly 
ignorant  of  that  language.  This  is  perhaps  ceasing  to  be 
a  practical  question,  since  well-educated  men  who  have 
not  some  knowledge  of  English  are  becoming  rare.  The 
learner  needs  to  take  heed  lest  "  following  the  line  of 
least  resistance  "  prevents  him  from  using  Japanese  in 
conversation  with  his  teacher. 

Some  students  believe  that  they  will  gain  a  more  idio- 
matic use  of  the  language  if  all  dictionaries  and  other 
books  are  discarded  and  the  time  spent  in  study  be  given 
wholly  to  conversation  with  any  people  whom  they  can 
find  to  talk  with  them.  If,  however,  such  persons  are 
asked  to  write  out  sentences,  their  methods  of  spelling 
will  show  that  their  ears  have  failed  to  catch  the  correct 
sounds  of  the  words,  and  he  who  gains  his  knowledge  of 
a  language  by  conversation  with  all  classes  and  conditions 
of  men  is  likely  to  acquire  an  uncouth  and  inelegant  dic- 
tion. 

There  is  such  a  thing  as  confining  one^s  self  too  closely 
to  books,  and  also  such  a  thing  as  neglecting  them  too 
much.  The  ideal  way  would  seem  to  be  to  lay  the  foun- 
dations by  study  with  a  teacher  who  uses  good  language, 
and  by  careful  employment  of  grammar  and  dictionary. 
After  that,  and  in  connection  with  it,  the  student  may  well 
exercise  tongue  and  ear  by  conversation  with  other  people ; 
only  let  him  resolve  not  to  adopt  any  new  word  into  his 


METHODS  OF   WORK  ,    IQI, 

vocabulary  until  he  has  seen  what  the*  Aictianary  call  tell* 
him  about  it.  Some  missions  have  prescribed  courses 
of  study,  with  yearly  examinations,  for  new  missionaries. 
One  has  a  rule  that  during  the  first  two  years  the  new 
missionary  shall  not  engage  in  English  teaching  or  similar 
work  for  more  than  two  hours  a  day,  thus  leaving  most 
of  the  time  for  the  study  of  the  language.  It  is  gen- 
erally felt  that  for  the  first  three  years  no  work  should 
be  assumed  which  involves  responsibility. 

3.  Not  Lost  Time. — The  years  spent  upon  the  language 
are  by  no  means  lost  in  other  respects.  The  student  is 
learning  about  Japanese  character  and  customs.  If  able 
to  speak  as  soon  as  he  landed,  he  would  doubtless  make 
very  great  blunders  in  his  method  of  presenting  the  truth, 
and  his  time  of  enforced  silence,  with  its  opportunities 
for  observation,  ought  to  save  him  from  many  of  those 
to  which  he  would  be  liable.  A  small  amount  of  English 
teaching,  whether  in  a  school  or  to  private  pupils,  will 
prevent  the  feeling  of  utter  uselessness  and  give  him 
opportunities  for  a  helpful  acquaintance  with  young 
people.  With  his  teacher  to  aid  him,  he  may,  after  a  few 
months,  teach  a  Bible  class;  and  still  later,  a  sermon, 
corrected  by  the  teacher  and  committed  to  memory,  will 
introduce  him  to  the  pulpit.  If  he  is  so  fortunate  as  to 
be  sent  to  an  interior  town,  where  foreigners  are  a  novelty, 
he  will  find  that,  even  before  he  knows  much  of  the  lan- 
guage, his  home  will  prove  an  important  aid  to  missionary 
work.  Its  furnishing  makes  the  house  so  different  from 
those  of  the  Japanese  that  numbers  of  people  come  to  see 
how  the  foreigner  lives.  Their  request  for  admission 
should  be  granted,  even  though  important  study  is  inter- 
rupted. Acquaintance  may  thus  be  made  with  persons 
who  will  be  more  likely  to  accept  an  invitation  to  some 
meeting  because  of  the  friendly  reception.  Even  with 
imperfect  language  something  can  be  said  of  Jesus  Christ. 
At  the  least,  some  tract  telling  the  most  important  truths 
of  Christianity  can  be  given  to  each  visitor  as  he  goes 
away. 

II.  Direct  Evangelistic  Effort — A  fair  amount  of 
progress  having  been  made  in  the  language,  the  mission- 
ary finds  various  forms  of  labor  opening  before  him.  He 
is  likely  to  take  part  in  several  of  them.    The  first  is  the 


I02  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

diieet'teachmg'of  llie' Gospel,  whether  by  preaching,  con- 
versation with  individuals,  or  by  conducting  Bible  classes. 

1.  Sunday-schools. — The  missionary  who  commences 
work  in  a  new  place  may  find  that  it  is  well  to  begin  with 
a  Sunday-school.  Since  there  are  no  sessions  of  the  pub- 
lic schools  on  Sunday,  the  children  are  at  liberty.  It  is 
usually  easy  to  attract  them  by  music,  large  Bible  pictures, 
the  telling  of  stories,  and  other  similar  methods.  Having 
brought  them  together  for  the  first  few  sessions,  the  skill 
of  the  workers  will  decide  whether  they  can  be  held  to 
regular  attendance.  Sometimes  these  schools  are  held  in 
the  missionary's  house ;  oftener  a  building  is  hired,  which 
can  also  be  used  for  preaching  services  and  other  meet- 
ings. If  there  is  a  sufficient  number  of  persons  avail- 
able for  teachers,  the  children  are  after  awhile  divided 
into  classes,  and  a  regular  Sunday-school  is  organized. 
Not  only  is  there  reason  to  hope  that  the  thoughts  put  into 
young  minds  will  influence  the  whole  future  of  these  chil- 
dren, but  they  will  report  to  their  parents  some  of  the 
things  they  have  heard,  or  the  papers  that  they  are  given 
to  carry  home  will  interest  others  of  the  family  in  Chris- 
tian truth. 

2.  Preaching. — If  one  walks  in  the  evening  through  the 
streets  of  a  Japanese  town,  he  is  likely  to  see  hanging  in 
front  of  one  of  the  buildings  a  paper  lantern,  perhaps 
three  feet  high,  inscribed,  "  Teaching  about  the  True 
God.  Please  come  in."  A  wooden  sign  beside  the  door 
shows  that  this  is  a  Christian  preaching-place.  Very  like- 
ly the  building  is  directly  upon  the  street,  and  the  whole 
front  of  it  is  open,  so  that  persons  who  do  not  care  to 
enter  can  stand  outside  and  hear  what  is  being  said.  Here 
the  missionary  and  his  associates  preach  to  any  who  may 
have  been  attracted  by  the  words  on  the  lantern,  by  spe- 
cial invitations  sent  to  people  of  the  neighborhood,  or  by 
the  notes  of  the  baby  organ  and  the  Christian  hymn.  At 
first  large  numbers  are  likely  to  come ;  but  the  missionary 
should  not  be  deceived  by  the  presence  of  so  many  people 
or  by  the  eagerness  with  which  they  crowd  about  him 
to  get  the  tracts  which  he  distributes  at  the  close  of  the 
service.  They  have  come  from  curiosity,  and  not  because 
their  souls  hunger  for  a  knowledge  of  truth.  After  a  few 
weeks,  unless  the  preaching-place  is  on  some  busy  street 


METHODS  OF   WORK  IO3 

where  people  are  continually  passing,  the  curiosity  is 
satiated  and  the  numbers  in  attendance  become  discour- 
agingly  small.  If,  however,  a  few  of  these  can  be  brought 
to  a  real  acceptance  of  Christ,  a  foundation  has  been  laid 
for  permanent  work.  These  new  believers  will  try  to 
influence  others,  and  so  the  little  flock  begins  to  increase 
until  it  becomes  large  enough  to  be  organized  into  a 
church. 

If  the  missionary  who  is  able  to  preach  is  located  in 
a  station  where  there  are  already  churches,  he  will  be 
invited,  from  time  to  time,  to  occupy  their  pulpits.  Some- 
times he  may  be  asked  to  join  his  Japanese  brethren  in 
holding  what  are  called  "  great  -  preaching  -  meetings." 
These  may  occupy  but  a  single  evening,  or  they  may  con- 
tinue through  the  afternoon  and  evening  of  one  or  more 
days.  They  are  held  in  a  church  or  in  some  large  build- 
ing hired  for  the  purpose.  A  few  years  ago  such  meet- 
ings were  often  held  in  theatres — large,  barn-like  struct- 
ures, with  room  for  several  hundred  people — but  the 
disturbances  that  are  likely  to  occur  in  such  places  have 
made  their  use  less  common  in  recent  years. 

3.  Itinerating. — Some  missionaries  spend  considerable 
time  in  travel.  A  part  of  this  may  be  spent  in  going  to 
new  places,  where  the  Gospel  has  never  before  been 
preached.  Probably  such  a  visit  will  be  in  response  to 
an  invitation  from  one  or  more  persons  living  in  the  place 
where  he  goes.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  much  better  it  is 
to  go  where  there  are  people  desiring  to  see  him  than  it 
is  to  push  in  where  no  one  has  any  interest  in  him  or  his 
message.  The  invitation  may  come  from  a  Christian 
who  has  removed  his  residence,  or  from  some  person 
who  has  bought  a  book  from  a  travelling  colporteur,  or  in 
other  ways  has  gained  a  little  knowledge  of  the  truth, 
so  that  he  desires  instruction  for  himself  and  his  friends. 
In  going  to  such  a  place  the  missionarv  will  prefer  to 
be  accompanied  by  one  or  more  of  his  Japanese  fellow- 
workers.  They  can  judge  better  than  he  of  the  real  con- 
ditions of  the  place  and  its  people,  and  there  are  parts 
of  the  work  that  can  always  be  better  done  by  the  native 
than  by  the  foreigner. 

If  the  people  who  sent  the  invitation  know  the  probable 
hour  of  the  missionary's  coming,  they  will  meet  him  two 


I04  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

or  three  miles  outside  of  the  city  and  accompany  him 
as  he  continues  on  his  way.  There  often  comes  a  strange, 
perhaps  a  cowardly  feeling,  as  one  draws  near  the  city. 
Here  is  this  place  with  its  thousands  of  inhabitants  who 
as  yet  know  nothing  of  Christianity.  They  are  to  get 
their  first  ideas  of  it  now.  Some  mistake  in  the  way  the 
missionary  presents  the  truth,  some  awkward  blunder  in 
the  language,  some  unintentional  violation  of  Japanese 
ideas  of  propriety,  may  prejudice  people  against  the  Chris- 
tian religion  and  make  it  more  difficult  for  other  workers 
to  go  there  than  though  he  had  never  visited  the  place ;  or 
it  may  be  that  the  right  words  spoken  in  the  right  manner 
will  prove  as  seed  sown  in  good  ground  that  shall  spring 
up  and  bear  fruit  to  God's  glory.  Who  is  sufficient  for 
these  things?  How  can  one  take  such  a  responsibility? 
It  is  now  too  late  to  retreat ;  the  only  thing  is  to  go  for- 
ward, with  the  prayer  that  God  will  guide  in  every  word 
and  act,  so  that  what  is  said  and  done  shall  be  to  His  glory. 
Probably  arrangements  will  have  been  made  for  having 
meetings  in  a  theatre  or  other  large  building.  Curiosity 
to  see  the  foreigner  and  to  hear  something  new  brings 
together  a  crowded  audience.  In  the  winter  the  meeting 
will  not  commence  until  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening;  in 
summer,  especially  in  agricultural  communities,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  get  people  together  until  nine  o'clock  or  later.  They 
are  patient  listeners,  and  the  addresses  are  so  long  that 
it  is  likely  to  be  midnight  before  the  missionary  returns 
to  his  hotel,  weary  from  the  journey  and  the  speaking. 
He  would  be  disappointed,  however,  if  he  could  at  once 
retire  to  rest ;  for  he  hopes  that  some  people  at  the  meet- 
ing were  so  interested  in  what  they  heard  that  they  will 
come  for  conversation.  He  has  hardly  seated  himself 
upon  the  mats  when  a  few  persons  enter,  and  now  the 
missionary  has  what  may  well  be  called  an  "  inquiry  meet- 
ing." Outwardly  it  does  not  bear  much  resemblance  to 
such  meetings  in  America.  As  soon  as  the  long  saluta- 
tions are  over,  and  cups  of  tea  have  been  ofifered  to  the 
visitors,  each  inquirer  will  probably  draw  out  pipe  or 
cigarette,  and  the  air  becomes  thick  with  smoke.  What- 
ever the  missionary  may  think  of  tobacco,  he  must  learn 
to  be  indiflFerent  to  its  fumes  while  he  listens  to  the  ques- 
tions that  are  proposed,  and  strives  to  give  satisfactory 
answers. 


METHODS  OF   WORK  IO5 

At  last  the  people  depart,  the  hotel  waitresses  spread 
upon  the  matted  floor  the  quilts  that  serve  for  a  bed,  and 
the  missionary  tries  to  snatch  a  few  hours'  sleep  before 
daybreak  causes  the  hotel  to  be  filled  with  noise  and  con- 
fusion. Fortunate  is  he,  however,  if  his  first  nap  is  not 
interrupted  by  the  policeman  who  wishes  to  see  his  pass- 
port, or  by  some  other  person  who  finds  an  excuse  for 
wakening  him.  There  is  no  privacy  in  a  Japanese  hotel, 
and  people  come  into  the  traveller's  room  at  any  hour 
of  day  or  night.  During  the  two  or  three  days  that  the 
missionary  remains  in  the  town  his  time  is  occupied  with 
meetings,  conversation  with  those  who  come  to  his  room, 
and  with  calls  upon  persons  who  perhaps  can  be  interested 
in  Christianity.  All  of  this  is  fatiguing,  but,  if  it  results 
in  the  establishment  of  permanent  work,  the  missionarv 
feels  well  repaid. 

Another  form  of  itinerating  work,  which  may  be  com- 
bined in  the  same  tour  with  the  other,  consists  in  visiting 
the  out-stations  where  native  evangelists  reside  or  where 
a  little  company  of  believers  meet  together  for  the  study 
of  the  Scriptures.  If  there  is  no  ordained  pastor  in  the 
place,  this  will  be  the  time  for  holding  a  communion  ser- 
vice and  administering  the  rite  of  baptism.  There  will 
also  be  consultations  with  evangelists  and  others,  meet- 
ings for  the  Christians,  calls  upon  the  sick  or  those  who 
are  wandering  from  the  faith,  and  evangelistic  services 
for  non-believers. 

4.  Work  zvith  Individuals. — The  missionary  is  likely 
to  have  many  people  come  to  his  house  to  inquire  about 
Christianity.  Not  all  of  them  are  honest  seekers  after 
truth.  Thinking  that  their  requests  are  more  likely  to 
be  successful  if  prefaced  by  inquiries  about  religion,  they 
listen  patiently  while  the  missionary  explains  his  doc- 
trines, and  at  the  close  they  ask  for  financial  help,  instruc- 
tion in  English,  or  some  other  favor.  It  is  not  so  with  all, 
however,  for  some  are  really  desirous  to  learn  the  truth, 
and  it  is  a  great  joy  to  see  their  faces  light  up  as  some 
passage  from  the  Bible  or  some  word  of  explanation 
makes  plain  what  before  had  not  been  understood.  Other 
people  must  be  sought  out  in  their  own  homes,  and  some 
missionaries  have  the  happy  faculty  of  being  able  to  arouse 
the  interest  of  persons  whom  they  meet  in  railroad  cars, 
steamboats,  or  in  their  .walks  through  the  country. 


I06  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

5.  The  Work  of  Missionary  Women. — Though  the 
women  who  are  engaged  in  missionary  work  seldom  make 
pubHc  addresses,  they  are  busy  in  otlier  forms  of  activity, 
accomplishing  as  much  as  the  men,  and  often  very  much 
more.  In  their  own  homes,  in  those  of  the  people,  in 
Bible  classes,  and  during  the  tours  that  some  of  them 
make  into  the  country,  they  find  abundant  opportunities 
for  usefulness.  It  may  be  partly  because  of  greater  pa- 
tience and  tact,  and  partly  because  there  is  not  the  fear 
that  they  will  try  to  exercise  authority  in  the  church,  that 
their  advice  is  often  sought  and  valued  by  the  Japanese 
evangelists  more  than  is  that  of  the  men.  While  the  un- 
married women  can  give  more  time  than  the  married  ones 
to  evangelistic  work,  many  of  the  latter  have  accomplished 
much,  and  those  who  have  been  kept  in  their  own  homes 
have  made  these  an  example  to  those  who,  seeing  them, 
have  been  moved  by  a  desire  to  have  their  own  family 
life  raised  to  a  higher  plane. 

III.  Educational  Work — Educational  work  has  from 
the  first  held  an  important  place  in  Japan.  Mention  has 
already  been  made  of  the  opportunities  to  teach  English 
that  were  utilized  by  the  early  missionaries.  The  con- 
tinuance of  a  desire  for  such  instruction  favored  the 
opening  of  schools.  Though  at  first  there  was,  even 
among  progressive  men,  little  interest  in  the  education 
of  their  daughters,  it  was  felt  that  by  bringing  the  girls 
into  schools  where  they  would  be  under  the  care  of  Chris- 
tian women  they  might  be  made  powerful  agents  for  the 
intellectual,  social,  and  spiritual  elevation  of  the  country. 
Most  missions  founded  schools  for  young  men  and  young 
women,  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  they  have  done  a 
most  useful  work.  There  is,  however,  considerable  dif- 
ference of  opinion  as  to  whether  education  has  received 
too  large  a  share  of  attention  in  the  past,  and  as  to  how 
much  should  be  given  it  in  the  future. 

I.  Theological  Training. — There  is  a  general  agree- 
ment that  provision  must  be  made  for  the  training  of 
pastors  and  other  Christian  workers.  To  some  extent 
this  need  may  be  met  if  each  missionary  gives  to  his 
immediate  helpers  such  instruction  as  is  required  for  their 
own  edification  and  for  immediate  impartation  to  others. 
Some  persons  have  received  valuable  training  by  becom- 


METHODS  OF  WORK  10/ 

ing  assistants  to  experienced  pastors,  under  whose  direc- 
tion they  worked.  It  is  necessary,  however,  that  others 
should  have  the  more  thorough  instruction  that  can  be 
given  in  a  theological  seminary.  Some  missionaries  con- 
tend that  the  teaching  should  be  in  the  vernacular,  and 
that,  except  in  special  cases,  it  is  not  wise  for  the  student 
to  give  the  time  and  strength  that  is  required  for  the  ac- 
quirement of  Enghsh.  On  the  other  hand,  though  some 
theological  schools  have  courses  exclusively  in  the  ver- 
nacular, it  is  usually  found  that  the  students  are  not  satis- 
fied unless  they  can  have  instruction  in  English ;  for  that 
language  is  so  much  studied  at  the  present  time  that  one 
who  knows  nothing  about  it  is  regarded  as  an  uneducated 
person,  and  hence  his  influence  in  the  place  where  he  la- 
bors is  much  diminished. 

Some  missions  have  established  schools  that  are  carried 
on  a  few  months  of  each  year  for  the  training  of  Bible- 
women.  These  workers  have  proved  so  efficient  that  it 
has  seemed  wise  to  give  them  opportunities  for  systematic 
study  of  the  Bible  and  for  such  instruction  in  other  sub- 
jects as  will  increase  their  usefulness. 

2.  Schools  of  Academic  Grade. — The  problems  con- 
nected with  schools  of  an  academic  grade  are  too  compli- 
cated to  be  discussed  here.  Those  who  are  most  pro- 
nounced in  their  favor  would  acknowledge  that,  so  far  as 
schools  for  young  men  are  concerned,  the  government 
has  provided  those  that  are  fairly  satisfactory  from  an 
intellectual  standpoint.  The  questions  are  rather  whether, 
in  view  of  the  materialistic,  irreligious,  and  sometimes 
immoral  atmosphere  that  prevails  in  those  schools,  there 
is  need  for  others  that  shall  be  under  Christian  influences ; 
whether  the  large  expenditure  of  mission  funds  that  is 
needed  to  support  schools  that  will  compare  favorably 
with  those  of  the  government  is  justified ;  and  whether 
the  tendency  to  emphasize  intellectual  work  can  be  so  held 
in  check  that  the  directly  religious  eflforts  of  the  mission 
shall  not  be  subordinated  to  it.  In  the  boys'  schools  of 
academic  grade  there  is  now  little  call  for  instruction  by 
foreign  teachers,  except  in  English  conversation,  compo- 
sition, and  literature.  Japanese  text-books  have  been 
prepared  in  all  the  sciences,  and  native  instructors  can 
usually  be  found  who  are  fitted  to  conduct  the  classes. 


I08  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

3.  Schools  for  Girls. — ^There  is  less  discussion  about 
boarding-schools  for  girls.  This  is  partly  because  the 
government  has  done  but  little  for  the  higher  education 
of  women,  and  partly  because  the  way  in  which  mission 
schools  are  conducted  gives  the  foreign  teachers  great  op- 
portunities to  influence  the  pupils  and  help  them  to  Chris- 
tian belief  and  life.  In  addition  to  the  schools  established 
by  missions,  there  are  some  that  have  been  founded  by 
companies  of  native  Christians  who  seek  the  help  of  mis- 
sionary women  in  the  instruction. 

4.  Kindergartens. — In  many  places  the  kindergarten 
has  been  found  a  very  valuable  instrument  for  Christian 
work,  not  merely  because  of  the  opportunities  it  affords 
for  moulding  the  lives  of  children  at  the  time  when  they 
are  most  susceptible  to  good  influences,  but  also  because 
through  the  children  the  parents  may  also  be  reached. 
There  are  public  kindergartens  in  the  large  cities,  but 
the  absence  from  them  of  the  religious  element  prevents 
them  from  carrying  out  the  principles  that,  in  Frobel's 
view,  lie  at  the  foundation  of  the  system.  In  connection 
with  one  or  two  of  the  missions  there  are  training-schools 
for  teachers.  The  graduates  are  in  great  request  by  the 
government  kindergartens,  but  their  best  work  is  done 
where  they  can  be  free  to  use  Christian  songs,  stories,  and 
instruction  for  the  help  of  their  pupils.  Kindergartners 
are  always  enthusiastic,  and  he  who  sees  them  surrounded 
by  the  bright-faced  children  cannot  wonder  that  they  con- 
sider their  work  so  important  and  effective. 

5.  Private  Classes. — The  missionary  is  likely  to  have 
numerous  requests  to  teach  English  to  individuals  or  to 
evening  classes.  Sometimes  a  number  of  school-teachers, 
policemen,  bank-clerks,  or  others  will  desire  to  form  such 
classes.  If  all  requests  were  granted,  the  time  of  the 
missionary  would  be  fully  occupied,  and  he  must  decide 
whether  the  advantages  that  come  from  gaining  an  influ- 
ence over  the  pupils  and  from  opportunities  that  may  be 
wisely  improved  for  giving  a  religious  turn  to  some  of 
the  exercises  of  the  class  will  justify  his  undertaking  such 
work.  Some  persons  have  made  it  very  effective ;  and  the 
young  missionary,  who  has  not  yet  learned  the  language, 
often  finds  reason  to  rejoice  that  this  opportunity  for  use- 
fulness is  open  to  him  from  the  first. 


METHODS  OF   WORK  lOQ 

IV.  Literary  Work.— I.  Translation  of  the  Scriptures. 
— Nearly  the  first  thing  to  which  Protestant  missionaries 
devote  their  attention  is  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures. 
Though  in  Japan  this  has  already  been  accomplished,  so 
that  young  missionaries  cannot  look  forward  to  work  of 
this  kind,  except  as  revision  may  sometime  engage  the 
efforts  of  a  few,  it  will  be  well  to  make  mention  of  what 
was  done  in  the  past.  Before  the  country  had  been  opened 
Drs.  Giitzlaff,  Williams,  and  Bettelheim  had  prepared 
translations  of  some  parts  of  the  Bible;  but  these  were 
so  imperfect  that  they  would  have  been  of  little  use,  even 
if  it  had  been  possible  to  introduce  them  into  the  country. 
It  was,  however,  a  great  help  to  missionary  effort  that 
educated  Japanese  were  able  to  read  Chinese.  Mr.  Lig- 
gins,  of  the  Episcopal  Mission,  wrote  from  Nagasaki,  in 
i860,  that,  during  the  first  ten  months  of  his  stay  in  Japan, 
he  had  "  sold  sixty  copies  of  the  Scriptures  and  books 
wholly  religious,  besides  2,000  magazines  partly  religious 
and  partly  secular,"  and  a  little  later  Dr.  Brown  had  sold, 
at  Kanagawa,  200  copies  of  the  New  Testament.  Soon, 
however,  fear  of  being  found  with  Christian  books  kept 
the  people  from  purchasing  more.  Japanese  teachers  were 
afraid  to  help  their  employers  in  the  work  of  translation. 
When,  notwithstanding  this  difficulty,  some  portions  had 
been  prepared,  no  printer  could  be  found.  Owing  to  such 
obstacles,  it  was  not  until  1871  that  any  of  the  Bible  was 
printed  in  Japan.  Mr.  Goble  then  published  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew.  A  few  other  portions  were  soon  afterward 
printed,  and,  in  September,  1872,  a  committee  was  ap- 
pointed by  a  united  conference  of  Protestant  missionaries 
to  prepare  a  translation  of  the  whole  New  Testament. 
The  different  books  were  published  as  fast  as  translated, 
and  the  whole  New  Testament  was  completed  in  1880, 
while  the  Old  Testament  was  not  finished  until  1887. 

2.  Other  Books. — In  the  early  days  many  books  besides 
the  Scriptures  were  brought  from  China.  Dr.  Martin's 
"  Evidences  of  Christianity  "  had  a  much  greater  circu- 
lation among  the  Japanese  than  among  the  people  for 
whom  it  was  originally  intended.  Thousands  of  copies 
were  imported,  and  it  was  sold  by  native  book-stores  in 
places  not  yet  visited  by  Christian  workers.  In  1867  ^^• 
Hepburn  published  the  first  tract  in  Japanese.    Those  who, 


no  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

with  the  aid  of  their  teachers,  prepared  some  of  the  early 
tracts,  found  great  difficulty  in  getting  them  written  in 
language  that  could  be  understood  by  the  common  people. 
One  missionary  tells  how  he  went  over  the  manuscript 
sentence  by  sentence,  asking  whether  the  meaning  was 
evident  and  forcing  the  reluctant  teacher  to  use  simpler 
words.  When  all  was  ready  for  the  press,  the  teacher 
begged  that  his  name  should  not  be  allowed  to  appear  in 
connection  with  the  tract,  as  he  would  be  ashamed  to 
have  it  known  that  he  had  written  anything  in  a  style 
that  could  be  easily  understood. 

Though  there  are  now  a  large  number  of  tracts  and 
other  Christian  publications,  there  is  still  need  for  new 
and  forcible  presentations  of  the  truth  and  for  books  in 
all  departments  of  religious  literature.  Most  missionaries 
will  be  led  to  publish  something.  The  success  of  this 
kind  of  work  largely  depends  upon  the  skill  of  the  Japa- 
nese who  assists  in  its  preparation ;  for,  even  more  than 
in  English,  style  is  important,  while  care  must  be  taken 
in  the  choice  of  Chinese  ideographs  and  in  many  other 
niceties  that  a  foreigner  can  hardly  appreciate.  Though 
missionaries  had  the  care  of  publishing  the  first  Christian 
newspapers  and  magazines,  most  of  this  work  has  now 
been  given  over  to  the  Japanese.  There  are  at  present  a 
large  number  of  these  periodicals,  and  the  missionary  may 
find  it  profitable  to  contribute  to  their  columns. 

V.  Medical  Work — i.  Those  who  have  not  had  a  full 
medical  education  are  unlikely  to  attempt,  as  they  might 
in  some  countries,  to  use  what  little  knowledge  and  simple 
remedies  they  may  possess  for  helping  the  sick.  At  first 
Japan  furnished  unusually  favorable  opportunities  for  the 
medical  missionary.  Dr.  Hepburn  opened  a  dispensary 
at  Kanagawa  soon  after  his  arrival.  "  It  found  favor  with 
the  people  until  the  authorities  forbade  them  to  go  to  it. 
Finally  it  was  found  expedient  to  close  it.  After  the 
Doctor's  removal  to  Yokohama,  at  the  close  of  1862,  he 
established  a  dispensary  there.  Thousands  of  poor  suf- 
ferers were  relieved  of  their  ailments,  while  their  spiritual 
needs  were  at  the  same  time  attended  to,  in  several  cases 
with  the  happiest  results." 

2.  The  medical  missionaries  were  usually  welcomed  by 
the  Japanese  physicians,  who  were  desirous  of  gaining 


METHODS   OF   WORK  III 

from  them  a  knowledge  of  foreign  medicine.  It  was  the 
rule  with  most  of  these  missionaries  not  to  conduct  an  in- 
dependent work.  They  treated  the  sick  in  connection  with 
the  native  doctors,  thus  taking  somewhat  the  position  of 
consulting  physicians.  By  doing  this  they  avoided  enter- 
ing into  competition  with  the  Japanese  practitioners. 
These  still  received  the  fees  from  the  patients,  and  so 
they  gladly  brought  their  most  puzzling  cases,  that  they 
might  be  advised  about  methods  of  treatment,  and,  where 
surgical  operations  were  required,  they  acted  as  assistants. 
They  thus  received  most  valuable  instruction.  The  med- 
ical work  did  much  to  remove  prejudices  against  Chris- 
tianity; religious  services  were  often  held  in  the  rooms 
used  for  dispensaries,  and  many  interior  towns  were 
opened  to  evangelistic  efforts  by  the  visits  of  the  medical 
missionary.  Those  who  had  been  healed  were  filled  with 
gratitude  to  their  benefactor,  sometimes  literally  worship- 
ping him  or  putting  his  photograph  among  the  objects 
of  devotion  on  the  *'  god-shelf."  Though  medical  mis- 
sionaries who  have  already  gained  reputation  and  influ- 
ence in  Japan  find  their  time  well  occupied,  the  opportu- 
nity for  new  workers  is  now  much  less  than  in  most  other 
countries,  for  the  government  has  established  medical  col- 
leges that  every  year  send  out  many  graduates  whose  tech- 
nical education  will  compare  favorably  with  that  given 
in  the  schools  of  the  West. 

3.  Closely  associated  with  the  medical  work  is  the  train- 
ing of  nurses.  This  has  been  undertaken  by  some  missions 
with  gratifying  results.  Though  similar  schools  have 
been  established  by  the  Red  Cross  Society  and  in  connec- 
tion with  several  hospitals,  the  graduates  from  Christian 
schools  have  won  a  fine  reputation,  partly  because  care 
has  been  taken  to  accept  only  women  of  superior  char- 
acter, and  partly  because  the  spirit  pervading  the  institu- 
tions has  tended  to  develop  high  ideals  of  devotion,  neat- 
ness, truth,  and  faithfulness. 

VI.  Miscellaneous  Work. — The  missionary  must  be 
prepared  to  turn  his  hand  to  any  kind  of  service  that  will 
increase  his  usefulness.  The  musician  can  help  to  train 
the  congregations  to  sing  Christian  hymns  or  can  instruct 
young  women  to  play  upon  the  organ,  so  as  to  aid  the 
musical  part  of  the  church  services.     Another  may  be 


112  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

called  on  to  draw  plans  for  churches  or  schools.  Some 
have  found  that  the  stereopticon  can  be  so  used  as  not 
merely  to  interest  large  audiences,  but  also  to  impress 
Christian  truths  upon  their  minds.  There  are  sometimes 
calls  to  address  educational  meetings.  Temperance,  phi- 
lanthropy, social  reform,  may  demand  attention  and  re- 
ceive help.  There  is  hardly  any  talent  possessed  by  a 
missionary  which  he  will  not  at  some  time  have  an  op- 
portunity to  utilize  and  make  tributary  to  his  main  pur- 
pose. 

VII.  The  Missionary's  Relation  to  the  Japanese 
Churches. — i.  This  will  evidently  depend  to  a  great  extent 
upon  the  polity  of  the  Church  in  question.  With  some 
branches  of  the  Church  the  highest  offices  are  held  by 
foreigners,  and  they,  to  a  large  extent,  control  the  actions 
and  the  activities  of  the  churches ;  with  others,  the  mis- 
sionaries and  Japanese  officers  are  upon  an  equal  footing 
and  are  together  responsible  for  the  legislation  of  the 
body;  in  still  others,  the  whole  control  is  with  the  Japa- 
nese, the  missionary  having  no  vote  and  exerting  influence 
only  through  the  advice  that  he  may  give.  Each  method 
has  its  advantages  and  its  disadvantages ;  and  the  present 
volume  is  not  the  fitting  place  to  discuss  the  different  sys- 
tems. 

2.  Another  difference  in  the  views  and  practice  of  mis- 
sionaries is  not  determined  by  denominational  prefer- 
ences, though  perhaps  somewhat  influenced  by  Church 
polity ;  this  difference  concerns  the  ever-burning  question 
of  self-support.  Some  missions  do  almost  everything  for 
the  churches,  paying  the  salaries  of  pastors  and  evangel- 
ists, erecting  church  buildings,  supporting  pupils  in 
schools,  etc.  The  diametrically  opposite  policy  has  been 
adopted  by  no  mission,  though  many  persons  connected 
with  different  missions  urgently  advocate  it.  This  would 
be  to  pay  nothing  at  all  toward  the  expenses  of  any 
church.  Probably  all  missionaries  recognize  to  some  ex- 
tent the  great  evils  and  dangers  that  are  connected  with 
the  use  of  foreign  money;  they  cannot  agree  as  to  the 
extent  in  which  efficient  work  can  be  done  without  it. 
The  aim  of  all  is  to  build  up  Japanese  churches  that  shall 
ultimately  be  wholly  independent  of  foreign  control  and 
support;  the  problem  is  how  this  can  be  most  quickly 
accomplished. 


XI 

Present  Conditions  and  Opportunities 

I.  What  has  been  Accomplished. — i.  The  Gathering 
of  the  Forces. — However  much  or  little  the  Church  has 
thus  far  accomplished  in  Japan,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
it  has  at  least  succeeded  in  sending  forth  its  forces  and 
in  occupying  many  important  centres.  In  military  af- 
fairs the  raising  of  an  effective  army  and  the  occupation 
of  strategic  points  is  considered  a  great  and  important 
step  toward  victory.  It  must  prove  to  be  the  same  in  the 
missionary  enterprises  of  the  Church  if  those  whom  it  has 
commissioned  to  do  its  work  are  the  proper  persons  for 
its  accomplishment.  There  were,  in  1898,  including  the 
Bible  and  Tract  Societies,  thirty-nine  Protestant  mission- 
ary bodies  working  in  Japan,  and  two  in  Formosa.  Be- 
sides these,  there  were  several  missionaries  not  connected 
with  any  society.  The  number  of  missionaries — including 
wives,  but  omitting  some  persons  who  belonged  to  so- 
cieties that  did  not  furnish  statistics — was  692.  Of  these, 
232  were  men  and  257  were  unmarried  women.  They 
lived  in  seventy  different  cities  and  had  work  in  864  out- 
stations.  Among  the  latter  some  places  are  counted  more 
than  once,  two  or  more  missions  having  interests  in  the 
same  town.    Formosan  statistics  are  not  here  included. 

There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  about  the 
advisability  of  increasing  the  number  of  missionaries. 
Some  point  to  the  many  towns  whose  people  have  not 
yet  heard  anything  about  Christ,  and  say  that  while  so 
much  remains  to  be  done  missions  must  continue  to  call 
for  reinforcements.  Others  consider  that  the  work  of 
the  foreign  missionary  should  be  chiefly  confined  to  a  few 
important  points ;  that  the  responsibility  for  evangelizing 
other  places  must  be  thrown  upon  the  native  Christians, 
and  that,  while  many  other  countries  are  inadequately  sup- 
8  113 


114  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

plied  with  missionaries,  men  and  women  should  not  be 
urged  to  come  to  Japan  except  as  vacancies  caused  by 
the  removal  of  those  now  on  the  field  may  require,  or  as 
other  special  needs  may  arise. 

2.  Relations  between  Different  Missions. — In  some  re- 
spects it  may  be  unfortunate  that  the  number  of  societies 
working  in  Japan  should  be  so  large ;  and  some  writers, 
though  for  the  most  part  they  have  been  those  who  have 
little  sympathy  with  missions,  have  pictured  the  confusion 
of  the  Japanese  as  so  many  forms  of  Christianity  are  pre- 
sented to  their  minds.  Practically,  however,  there  is  little 
trouble  of  this  kind.  In  the  first  place,  the  Japanese  are 
accustomed  to  the  idea  of  sects,  those  of  Buddhism  and 
Shintoism  differing  more  from  each  other  than  do  the 
Protestant,  Roman,  and  Greek  Churches.  Moreover, 
Christian  missionaries,  as  a  rule,  are  not  inclined  to  em- 
phasize denominational  differences.  There  is  little  attempt 
to  draw  believers  from  one  fold  to  another.  The  Uni- 
tarians, indeed,  apparently  consider  that  the  best  work 
can  be  done  by  sending  their  publications  to  evangelical 
believers  whose  former  faith  they  desire  to  weaken  or 
destroy;  there  are  a  few  persons  unconnected  with  any 
society  who  attempt  to  induce  Christians  to  leave  the 
churches,  and  peculiarities  of  doctrine  or  church  govern- 
ment have  in  some  cases  proved  a  bar  to  united  effort; 
but,  taken  as  a  whole,  the  influence  of  the  missionaries 
has  been  against  denominationalism.  Most  are  very  care- 
ful not  to  interfere  with  the  work  of  others.  The  mission- 
aries have  often  exerted  their  influence  to  prevent  the 
native  Christians  from  opening  work  in  places  occupied 
by  other  branches  of  the  Church.  It  was  thought,  in  the 
earlier  days  of  the  work,  that  there  might,  to  some  extent, 
be  a  division  of  the  field  among  different  societies,  but 
this  was  soon  found  impracticable,  as  the  people  first 
reached  by  the  Gospel  were  such  as  were  most  liable  to 
move  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another.  As  they 
made  openings  for  missionary  work  in  their  new  homes, 
it  was  natural  that  they  should  seek  to  have  it  carried 
on  by  the  churches  with  which  they  were  affiliated. 

Missionaries  and  Christians  of  different  bodies  unite  in 
evangelistic  and  other  services.  The  Week  of  Prayer  is 
observed  by  union  meetings,  and  in  one  large  city  it  was 


PRESENT  CONDITIONS  AND   OPPORTUNITIES     II5 

for  several  years  the  custom  to  have  it  close  with  a  com- 
munion service  in  which  missionaries  of  the  Church  of 
England,  Presbyterian,  Congregational,  and  Episcopal 
Churches  of  America  united  with  the  Japanese  Christians 
in  commemorating  the  dying  love  of  their  common  Lord. 
There  are  not  so  many  branches  of  the  Church  in  Japan 
as  there  are  missionary  bodies.  Seven  Presbyterian  so- 
cieties work  in  connection  with  the  one  "  Church  of  Christ 
in  Japan,"  and  four  Episcopal  societies  with  the  "  Nippon 
Sei  Kokwai."  There  have  been  propositions  for  uniting 
the  work  of  the  different  Methodist  societies,  and  a  few 
years  ago  a  union  of  the  Presbyterian  and  Kumi-ai — 
Congregational — Churches  came  very  near  being  effected. 

3.  Assertions  that  Missions  Accomplish  Little.- — The 
Christian  Church  has  little  cause  to  rejoice  in  the  numbers 
of  men  sent  to  the  front,  unless  they  are  accomplishing 
something  or  are  likely  to  do  so  in  the  near  future.  Do 
missions  succeed  ?  From  time  to  time,  persons  who  have 
visited  Japan  return  to  tell  their  friends  or  to  write  to 
various  periodicals  that  missions  are  a  failure.  As  they 
have  been  in  the  country,  even  though  it  was  for  only 
a  few  days,  their  testimony  is  regarded  as  conclusive. 
One  inquiry  should  be  made  of  such  persons.  Did  they 
visit  the  missionaries,  the  schools,  and  the  churches?  or 
did  they  depend  upon  the  gossip  they  heard  on  the  steam- 
ers and  in  the  hotels?  Among  the  European  merchants 
there  are  some  who  take  a  real  and  helpful  interest  in 
Christian  work,  but  it  is  a  matter  for  regret  that  most  of 
them  do  not.  It  would  take  too  much  space  to  discuss  the 
reasons  for  this,  but  the  fact  is  evident.  Dr.  Griffis  has 
written:  "  A  community  in  which  the  lives  of  the  major- 
ity are  secretly  or  openly  at  variance  with  the  plainest 
precepts  of  the  Great  Master  cannot,  even  on  general  prin- 
ciples, be  expected  to  sympathize  very  deeply  with,  or  even 
comprehend,  the  efforts  of  men  who  are  social  heretics.  It 
is  hard  to  find  an  average  '  man  of  the  world  *  in  Japan  who 
has  any  clear  idea  of  what  the  missionaries  are  doing 
or  have  done.  Their  dense  ignorance  borders  on  the  ri- 
diculous." Yet  it  is  from  such  people  that  the  ordinary 
traveller  is  likely  to  get  his  ideas. 

A  gentleman,  whose  brother  had  written  an  excellent 
book  on  missions,  came  to  Japan,  saying :    "  I,  too,  am 


Il6  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

going  to  investigate  the  question,  but  not  as  my  brother 
did.  He  went  to  the  missionaries,  who  naturally  made 
the  best  showing  possible.  I  shall  keep  away  from  them, 
and  by  asking  the  sea-captains  and  merchants  what  they 
think,  shall  get  disinterested  testimony."  There  might 
be  some  reason  in  this  if  he  had  found  men  who  really 
had  any  information;  but  what  would  he  think  of  one 
who,  wishing  to  find  out  about  trade  in  Japan,  should 
keep  aloof  from  merchants  and  gather  the  opinions  of 
missionaries  who  never  went  into  the  offices  and  stores 
of  the  great  business  firms.  A  person  often  fails  to  see 
because  he  does  not  care  to  see.  A  lady  who  lived  several 
years  in  Japan  said,  on  returning  home :  "  I  know  that 
those  missionaries  do  not  reach  the  people.  For  years 
I  lived  opposite  the  church,  and  I  never  saw  a  Japanese 
enter  its  doors."  To  her  friends  this  must  have  been  con- 
vincing testimony,  for  they  did  not  know,  and  apparently 
she  did  not,  that  the  church  in  question  was  that  of  the 
foreign  community,  all  its  services  being  in  English.  Had 
she  walked  a  few  steps  some  Sunday  morning  into  the 
native  town,  she  might  have  seen  crowded  congregations 
of  Japanese  Christians. 

4.  Converts. — A  person  who  is  acquainted  with  the 
facts  may  reply  to  the  one  who  says  nothing  is  being 
accomplished :  "  Up  to  the  spring  of  1872  only  ten  Prot- 
estant Christians  had  been  baptized  in  all  Japan.  The 
statistics  for  1898  show  a  church  membership  of  40,981, 
and  3,070  adult  baptisms  during  the  year.  That  looks  as 
though  Christianity  had  made  some  progress."  Let  it  not 
be  thought  that  such  statements  will  change  the  traveller's 
verdict.  He  remembers  other  things  that  he  heard  on  the 
steamer,  and,  with  a  scornful  smile,  he  says :  "  Oh,  yes, 
I  know  that  a  good  number  of  church  members  are  re- 
ported, but  who  are  they?  Only  people  of  the  lowest 
classes,  most  of  them  mere  rice-Christians  who  have  been 
led  into  the  Church  from  hope  of  personal  gain."  If  this 
is  true,  it  is  strange  that  their  contributions  during  the 
year  amounted  to  95,366  Yen  ($47,683  in  American 
gold).  When  one  considers  the  persecution  and  loss  that 
some  of  them  have  endured  for  Christ's  sake,  there  seems 
just  cause  for  indignation  at  their  being  called  "  rice- 
Christians."    Only  5iose  of  the  ''  lowest  classes  "  1 


PRESENT  CONDITIONS  AND   OPPORTUNITIES     11/ 

If  we  should  learn  that  the  Speaker  of  our  national 
House  of  Representatives  had  accepted  some  belief  that 
is  despised  or  hated  by  most  of  his  countrymen,  should 
we  speak  of  him  as  one  of  the  lowest  classes  who  had  been 
influenced  by  hope  of  personal  gain  ?  The  presiding  offi- 
cer of  the  Lower  House  in  the  first  Japanese  Parliament, 
which  met  in  1890,  was  a  Christian.  The  one  who  has 
held  the  same  position  in  the  last  two  Parliaments  is  an 
elder  in  a  Presbyterian  church.  He  has  been  a  member 
of  every  parliament  from  the  beginning.  When  he  was 
first  nominated  some  of  his  political  friends  came  to  him, 
saying,  "  You  hold  a  prominent  place  among  the  Chris- 
tians, and  our  opponents  will  use  the  fact  against  you.  Of 
course,  we  cannot  ask  you  to  give  up  your  religion;  but 
we  do  wish  you  to  resign  your  eldership.  After  being 
elected,  you  could  resume  the  office,  but  it  is  necessary  for 
you  to  lay  it  aside  for  a  time."  ''  No,"  answered  Mr. 
Kataoka,  "  I  would  rather  lose  my  chance  of  going  to 
Parliament  than  give  up  my  office  in  the  Church."  If 
we  heard  that  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States  had  become  the  follower  of  some  de- 
spised religion,  should  we  say  that  he  is  another  of  the 
lowest  classes  who  has  been  led  by  the  hope  of  personal 
gain?  One  who  for  some  time  held  the  corresponding 
position  in  Japan  is  a  Christian  who  did  not  hide  his  re- 
ligion and  who  finally  resigned  his  high  office  because 
certain  things  occurring  in  connection  with  judicial  af- 
fairs were  contrary  to  his  ideas  of  right.  Mention  might 
be  made  of  many  more — judges,  legislators,  ex-daimyos, 
officers  in  army  or  navy,  lawyers,  physicians,  merchants, 
editors,  and  other  well-known  men — the  list  proving  the 
gross  ignorance  displayed  by  the  remarks  of  those  who 
hate  missions  or  do  not  take  the  trouble  to  learn  the  truth 
about  them. 

No  claim  is  made  that  all  of  these  believers  were  brought 
to  Christ  by  the  direct  efforts  of  the  missionaries.  So 
far  as  human  agency  is  concerned,  most  of  them  were  led 
by  Japanese  pastors  and  evangelists ;  but  it  is  the  work 
of  missions  as  a  whole  that  has  set  in  motion  the  influences 
that  are  building  up  the  Church  in  Japan. 

5.  Successful  Work  among  the  Ainu. — An  earlier  chap- 
ter contained  a  description  of  the  aboriginal  race  whose 


Il8  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

remnant  is  found  in  the  northern  islands.  Representa- 
tives of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  had  made  a  few 
visits  to  these  Ainu  previous  to  1883,  when  a  new  effort 
for  their  evangehzation  was  inaugurated.  In  that  year 
Rev.  Mr.  Batchelor,  who  had  previously  made  them  two 
visits  of  two  months  each,  went  again  into  the  Ainu  coun- 
try, in  the  northern  island  of  Yezo,  where  he  remained 
six  months.  His  former  friends  had  not  forgotten  him. 
They  manifested  great  pleasure  at  his  return,  almost 
whole  villages  turning  out  to  welcome  him,  and  their 
chiefs  expressing  the  hope  that  he  would  remain  among 
them  for  a  long  time.  He  located  himself  at  Piratori,  the 
old  Ainu  capital,  where  Chief  Penri  lent  him  a  corner 
of  his  hut.  The  study  of  the  language  was  resumed,  a 
vocabulary  of  about  6,000  words  collected,  and  an  Ainu 
grammar  compiled.  Since  then  Mr.  Batchelor  has  trans- 
lated the  Scriptures,  the  Prayer-Book,  and  other  works. 
The  Ainu,  though  quiet  and  gentle,  are  much  addicted  to 
drunkenness.  This  vice,  connected  as  it  is  with  their 
worship,  is  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
their  receiving  the  Gospel.  In  1897  over  700  Ainu  had 
been  baptized,  a  very  encouraging  result  when  we  remem- 
ber that  the  whole  number  of  these  aborigines  is  only 
about  17,000.  Schools  for  both  boys  and  girls  have  been 
established.  The  centre  of  the  work  is  now  at  Sapporo. 
Here  has  been  built  a  "  Rest  House  '*  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  Ainu  out-patients  attending  the  Japanese  Hospi- 
tal. Out  of  the  seventy-five  patients  received  during  the 
first  year,  eleven  definitely  embraced  Christianity,  and  all 
heard  much  of  Christ  and  His  Gospel. 

6.  Philanthropy. — A  living  Christianity  will  not  be  in- 
different to  the  needs  of  suffering  humanity.  Love  for 
God  will  lead  to  labors  of  love  for  His  children.  The 
missionaries  themselves  have  engaged  in  such  work,  but 
it  is  encouraging  to  see  that  many  of  the  Japanese  Chris- 
tians have  felt  that  God  called  them  to  earnest  and  self- 
sacrificing  efforts  for  the  weak  and  suffering.  For  ex- 
ample, Mr.  Ishii,  a  young  medical  student  in  Okayama, 
became  so  interested  in  orphan  children  that  he  gave  up 
the  profession  for  which  he  had  nearly  prepared  himself, 
burned  his  medical  books  that  they  might  not  tempt  him 
to  resume  his  studies,  and  took  some  of  these  children 


PRESENT  CONDITIONS  AND  OPPORTUNITIES     1 19 

into  his  home.  The  work  grew  upon  his  hands,  and  the 
asylum  which  he  founded  has  won  the  admiration  of  be- 
Hevers  and  non-beUevers '  in  Christianity.  In  Hke  man- 
ner, Mr.  Hara  became  interested  in  prisoners  and  has  de- 
voted himself  to  work  for  released  convicts. 

There  are  now  several  charitable  institutions  that  are 
entirely  under  the  direction  of  Japanese  Christians.  Rev. 
J.  H.  Pettee,  D.D.,  prepared,  in  1897,  a  list  of  Christian 
charities  from  which  the  following  summary  of  what  is 
done  in  connection  with  Protestant  missions  and  Churches 
is  drawn : 

58  Day  and  Night  Schools  for  the  poor,  with  2,963 
scholars. 

19  Orphan  Asylums,  with  719  inmates. 

14  Homes  for  various  classes,  with  287  inmates. 

16  Hospitals  and  Dispensaries. 

The  orphan  asylums  have  especially  appealed  to  the 
charitable  sentiments  of  the  people.  The  kind  of  children 
who  find  in  them  a  home  will  be  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing account  of  the  inmates  in  one  of  the  smaller  asylums : 
"  Five  were  sold  or  about  to  be  when  we  took  them ;  eight 
cast  off  to  become  waifs  or  beggars ;  six  had  respectable 
widowed  mothers  unable  to  support  their  families;  one 
of  the  three  foundlings  was  out  in  the  fields  several  days 
before  found,  and  one  all  but  murdered  by  its  mother; 
five  of  our  children  had  been  beggars,  one  being  born 
a  beggar.  Of  the  twenty-seven,  nine  have  begged  more 
or  less.  Three  are  eta.  Suicides,  murders,  whole  families 
in  prison  much  of  the  time,  runaway  parents,  and  sisters 
sold  to  a  life  of  shame,  are  items  in  their  family  his- 
tories." 

The  influence  of  these  institutions  is  felt  by  others,  and 
the  Buddhists  have  been  led  to  imitate  them.  Thus  many 
who  are  in  need  of  help  may  indirectly  receive  the  fruits 
of  Christianity.  The  sufferers  are  many,  and  we  cannot 
but  hope  that  the  example  set  by  the  Christians  will  incite 
others  to  deeds  of  charity. 

Though  there  are  thousands  of  lepers  in  the  country, 
the  only  asylums  for  them,  so  far  as  known,  are  one 
Roman  CathoHc  and  two  Protestant  institutions ;  the  only 
work  for  the  blind  is  in  two  government  schools  and 
two  Protestant  asylums,  both  of  them  small,  while  ap- 


120  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

parently  nothing  is  done  for  the  idiotic  and  but  little  for 
the  insane. 

7.  Reforms. — Among  the  results  accomplished  by 
Christianity  must  be  counted  the  inauguration  of  many 
movements  in  the  interest  of  social  reform.  Temperance 
societies  established  by  Christians  have  many  unbelievers 
among  their  members. 

A  few  years  ago  the  Christians  of  several  prefectures 
commenced  agitations  in  favor  of  doing  away  with  the 
system  of  licensed  prostitution.  Unfortunately,  in  most 
places  little  was  accomplished;  but  in  one  prefecture, 
where  several  Christians  were  members  of  the  provincial 
assembly,  a  great  victory  was  won.  After  a  few  years 
the  coming  of  a  new  governor  was  made  the  occasion 
for  an  attempt  to  restore  the  system,  and  large  sums  of 
money  were  expended  by  those  who  hoped  to  profit  by  the 
evil  business.  Those  who  opposed  this  looked  to  the 
Christians  for  leadership,  and  did  not  look  in  vain.  There 
was  a  long  and  hard  battle,  which  at  last  resulted  in  the 
defeat  of  those  who  tried  to  bring  back  the  licensing  sys- 
tem. 

Some  of  the  Christians  are  taking  an  interest  in  the  so- 
cial problems  that  grow  out  of  the  modern  manufacturing 
system,  and  we  may  believe  that,  as  the  questions  take 
more  definite  shape,  the  churches  will  furnish  those  who 
will  be  leaders  in  seeking  wise  ways  of  overcoming  or 
preventing  the  evils  that  threaten  the  poor. 

8.  Only  a  Beginning  Has  Been  Made. — If  some  make 
the  mistake  of  supposing  that  almost  nothing  has  been 
accomplished,  others  may  err  in  the  opposite  direction  and 
get  an  idea  that  the  victory  is  almost  won.  Such  persons 
hardly  appreciate  what  it  means  to  lead  a  nation  of  forty- 
two  million  people  to  new  beliefs  and  practices  so  different 
from  the  old.  The  leaven  has  indeed  been  placed  in  the 
meal,  but  it  will  be  long  before  the  whole  lump  is  leavened. 
Perhaps  the  rapid  progress  of  fifteen  years  ago  excited 
too  high  hopes.  The  slower  movement  of  recent  years 
has  caused  disappointment,  which  was  increased  by  the 
weakness  of  many  churches  and  individuals  who  had 
seemed  thoroughly  established  in  Christian  belief.  It  had 
been  forgotten  that  they  were  yet  but  children  in  the 
faith,  that  it  was  easy  for  them  to  be  led  away  by  new 


PRESENT  CONDITIONS  AND   OPPORTUNITIES     121 

and  striking  theories,  and  that  they  had  not  yet  gained 
such  strength  that  it  was  easy  to  resist  the  temptations 
that  surrounded  them.  Much  remains  to  be  done  in  Japan. 
There  are  multitudes  who  have  not  yet  heard  the  name 
of  Christ.  The  churches  are  few  in  number,  the  Chris- 
tians form  but  a  Httle  flock,  and  they  are  surrounded  by 
those  who  would  lead  them  astray. 

II.  The  Present  Religious  Condition  of  Japan. — 
I.  The  Weakening  of  the  Old  Religions. — As  Japan  has 
passed  through  great  changes  affecting  all  other  depart- 
ments of  human  life  and  thought,  the  religious  beliefs  and 
sentiments  of  the  people  could  not  remain  unaffected. 
The  old  religions  have  been  subjected  to  a  great  strain 
and  have  failed  to  satisfy  those  who  were  receiving  new 
ideas  from  the  West.  Young  people  taught  the  truths 
of  science  cannot,  as  their  parents  did,  bow  their  heads 
and  worship  the  rising  sun;  they  cannot  go  into  the 
Buddhist  temples,  kneel  before  images  made  of  wood  or 
stone,  and  from  their  hearts  repeat  the  Buddhist  prayers. 
The  forms  may  at  times  be  preserved,  but  the  reality 
has  gone.  Hence  multitudes  of  the  young  men  speak  of 
themselves  as  having  no  religion. 

As  has  already  been  said,  Confucianism  is  being  neg- 
lected and  Shintoism  considered  as  something  else  than 
a  religion.  Many  Buddhists  regard  the  outlook  as  very 
gloomy.  In  1896  one  of  their  leading  journals  said: 
"  Buddhism  is  holding  its  own  to-day  by  the  mere  force 
of  inertia.  By  force  of  custom  the  older  and  middle-aged 
people  of  the  present  day  are  still  sustaining  the  old 
religion,  though  the  faith  of  even  these  is  gradually  grow- 
ing cold.  But  what  will  come  to  pass  when  society  falls 
into  the  hands  of  those  born  in  the  Meiji  Era  [the  era 
that  commenced  in  1868]  ?  .  .  .  Within  ten  years 
Buddhism  will  fail  in  all  its  endeavors."  In  1897  another 
Buddhist  journal  said,  '*  Buddhism  is  dead.  There  is 
no  advantage  in  concealing  the  fact ; "  and  still  another 
asserted,  "  AH  that  remains  of  Buddhism  is  its  literature." 
It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  similar  quotations.  The 
expressions  may  be  stronger  than  the  facts  justify,  but 
they  show  the  despondent  feeling  that  prevails,  and  there 
is  at  least  a  foundation  of  truth  for  their  description  of 
the  situation. 


122  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

2.  Statistics  of  Students. — A  Buddhist  magazine  re- 
cently took  the  reUgious  statistics  of  students  in  three  of 
the  higher  institutions  of  learning.  In  one  school  the 
average  age  of  the  pupils  was  nineteen  and  a  half  years, 
in  another  twenty-one  and  three-fourths  years,  and  in  the 
third  twenty-three  years.  Of  the  students,  409  gave  their 
religions  as  follows : 

Confucianist i  Atheists 60 

Shintoist   i  Agnostics    282 

Buddhists   15  Non-committal 46 

Christians  4 

It  will  be  seen  that  only  seventeen  declared  their  belief 
in  any  of  the  old  religions  of  Japan.  Surely,  this  cannot 
be  a  cause  of  rejoicing  so  long  as  nothing  better  takes 
their  place. 

3.  Seeking  a  Religion. — Japan  might  be  described  as 
a  nation  in  search  of  a  religion.  Though  young  men  may 
be  satisfied  for  awhile  with  agnosticism,  the  people  as 
a  whole  cannot  be.  Thoughtful  men  are  recognizing  that 
irreligion  tends  to  moral  degeneracy.  Whatever  may 
have  been  the  defects  of  the  old  religions,  they  had  some 
influence  in  restraining  the  evil  passions  of  men,  and  the 
loss  of  faith  is  being  followed  by  evil  consequences  that 
are  too  apparent  to  all  observers.  Hence  many  writers 
for  the  periodical  press  are  declaring  that  the  great  need 
of  the  country  is  religion.  They  may  have  little  thought 
of  religious  faith  as  something  that  they  themselves  ought 
to  possess,  but  they  recognize  how  their  country  is  suffer- 
ing from  the  present  tendency.  Some  would  attempt  a 
revival  of  Shintoism,  others  advocate  eclecticism,  and 
there  are  many  who  would  like  to  take  a  hand  in  manu- 
facturing something  that  they  would  call  religion.  Among 
the  people  at  large  there  is,  in  a  way,  something  of  this 
same  search  for  a  religion,  and  hence  has  come  the  sud- 
den popularity  of  Tenrikyo  and  other  minor  sects. 

III.  America's  Responsibility. — Japan  was  for  a  long 
time  a  hermit  nation.  She  did  not  wish  to  have  any 
intercourse  with  Western  lands.  America  sent  out  its 
Expedition  to  call  forth  Japan  from  its  long  seclusion. 
She  held  back;   but  we  dragged  her  forth,  unwilling  as 


PRESENT  CONDITIONS  AND   OPPORTUNITIES     1 23 

she  was,  into  a  life  that  was  new  and  strange.  We  have 
been  the  means  of  bringing  her  many  blessings.  We  have 
also  brought  her  face  to  face  with  many  problems  and 
many  perils.  In  all  the  political,  commercial,  and  edu- 
cational progress  she  has  made  we  have  rejoiced.  If  this 
is  all,  however,  we  cannot  be  satisfied.  We  would  see  her 
enjoying  the  blessings  of  a  pure  religion,  and  since  the 
old  faiths  have  been  shaken  because  of  what  America  did, 
American  Christians  should  feel  a  special  responsibility 
to  see  that  something  better  takes  their  place.  The  agnos- 
ticism and  atheism  of  the  young  men  of  Japan  have  been 
largely  the  result  of  the  undermining  of  old  beliefs  by 
what  they  have  learned  in  the  schools.  The  educational 
system  of  Japan  was  largely  modelled  upon  that  of  Massa- 
chusetts, so  that,  as  we  look  upon  the  statistics  that  were 
given  of  the  religious  beliefs  of  students,  we  must  again 
feel  that  America  is  largely  responsible  for  the  prevailing 
irreligion.  We  who  have  done  the  destructive  work  are 
guilty  unless  we  see  to  it  that  the  constructive  work  is 
not  neglected. 

IV.  Present  Circumstances  that  Favor  Missionary 
Effort. — The  year  1899  marks  a  new  point  in  the  history 
of  Japan.  In  July  the  country  becomes  open  to  foreigners 
as  it  has  not  been  before.  It  will  no  longer  be  necessary 
for  the  missionary  to  obtain  a  special  passport  in  order  to 
travel  in  the  interior,  and  he  can  reside  wherever  he 
pleases.  The  old  restrictions  that  at  one  time  hampered 
his  work  will  be  removed.  At  the  same  time  the  extension 
of  railroads  has  made  it  easy  to  get  from  one  part  of  the 
country  to  another.  The  Church  ought  to  make  the  most 
of  these  improved  conditions,  especially  if,  as  there  seems 
much  reason  to  hope,  the  reactionary  movement  of  the 
last  decade  has  nearly  expended  its  force.  No  one  can 
foretell  what  changes  may  come  over  the  sentiments  of 
the  people ;  but  whether  they  become  eager  inquirers  after 
the  truth  or  are  indifferent  to  it,  the  duty  of  the  Church 
is  to  labor  earnestly  and  persistently  for  the  complete 
evangelization  of  the  land. 

V.  Japan's  Influence  upon  Asia.— Success  or  failure 
will  not  be  confined  to  Japan.  It  is  no  longer  a  secluded 
nation.  What  is  done  there  affects  other  countries,  and 
especially  those  of  Eastern  Asia.  The  Japanese  sometimes 


124  JAPAN  AND  ITS  REGENERATION 

compare  their  country  to  the  rudder  of  a  ship;  though 
the  rudder  is  small,  it  directs  the  course  of  the  whole 
vessel.  The  figure  is  not  wholly  unreasonable.  The  influ- 
ence of  Japan  upon  the  nations  of  the  continent  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  marked.  Unless  all  the  signs  are 
deceptive,  much  of  the  world's  history  during  the  next 
century  will  centre  about  Eastern  Asia.  Great  political, 
social,  and  religious  changes  are  at  hand.  If  Japan  should 
be  given  over  to  materialism  and  infidelity,  the  Church 
will  have  lost  a  powerful  ally  and  will  have  its  difficulties 
increased.  If  Japan  should  speedily  become  a  Christian 
nation,  Korea,  Siam,  and  the  vast  empire  of  China  would 
be  profoundly  influenced  by  the  event  itself,  while  the 
Japanese  Christians,  imbued  with  a  missionary  spirit, 
would  join  the  Churches  of  the  West  in  hastening  forward 
to  bring  about  the  redemption  of  Asia, 


The  Final  Outcome 


My  word  .  .  .  shall  not  return  unto  Me  void,  hut 
it  shall  accomplish  that  which  I  please,  and  it  shall  pros- 
per  in  the  thing  zvhereto  I  sent  it. 

He  is  faithful  that  promised. 

I  beheld,  and,  lo,  a  great  multitude,  which  no  man  could 
number,  of  all  nations,  and  kindreds,  and  people,  and 
tongues,  stood  before  the  throne,  and  before  the  Lamb, 
clothed  with  white  robes,  and  palms  in  their  hands;  and 
cried  with  a  loud  voice,  saying.  Salvation  to  our  God 
which  ^itteth  upon  the  throne,  and  unto  the  Lamb. 


APPENDIX  A 

Formosa. — ^Although  it  has  not  seemed  advisable  to 
treat  of  Formosa  in  the  body  of  the  text-book,  a  few 
words  about  this  recent  addition  to  the  Empire  of  Japan 
may  here  find  a  place. 

The  name  Formosa  is  a  Portuguese  word  meaning 
"  Beautiful."  By  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  it  is  called 
Taiwan  ("  Terraced  Harbor  ").  The  island  itself  is  sep- 
arated from  China  by  the  Formosa  Channel,  which,  in 
its  narrowest  place,  has  a  breadth  of  eighty  miles.  It  is 
250  miles  long  and  has  an  average  breadth  of  fifty  miles. 
The  Tropic  of  Cancer  passes  through  it  near  the  centre. 
The  interior  of  the  island  is  occupied  by  high  mountain 
ranges  extending  north  and  south.  On  the  western  side 
there  are  plains  between  the  sea  and  the  mountains ;  the 
eastern  side  is  more  precipitous.  The  climate  is  very 
damp  and  trying  to  foreigners.  Malarial  fever  abounds. 
As  in  Japan,  there  are  frequent  earthquakes  and  typhoons. 

The  Portuguese  settled  there  in  1590.  They  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  Dutch  and  Spaniards,  who  quarrelled  for 
its  possession.  The  Dutch,  who  drove  out  the  Spaniards, 
were  in  their  turn  expelled  by  Chinese  pirates.  In  1683 
Formosa  was  made  a  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  The 
aborigines  were  of  Malay  origin.  Though  many  of  them 
submitted  to  the  Chinese  and  adopted  their  civilization, 
the  mountain  tribes  have  never  yielded,  but  retain  their 
savage  habits.  They  are  head-hunters,  desiring  to  gain 
the  heads  of  their  enemies  as  ornaments  for  their  huts. 
They  lie  in  wait  for  the  Chinese  and  also  for  members 
of  those  tribes  that  have  yielded  to  the  Chinese. 

When  some  of  these  savages  attacked  sailors  from 
Japan,  that  country  demanded  that  they  be  punished  by 
the  Chinese  Government;  and,  since  the  latter  did  noth- 
inigj  Japan,  in  1874,  sent  an  expedition  which  invaded 

125 


126  APPENDIX  A 

the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  but  withdrew  when  Giina 
at  last  came  to  terms.  In  1895,  as  one  result  of  the  war 
between  China  and  Japan,  Formosa  was  ceded  to  the 
latter  country,  which  is  now  engaged  in  the  difficult  task 
of  tranquillizing  and  developing  the  island. 

Missionary  work  in  the  southern  part  of  Formosa  was 
begun  in  1865  by  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  England, 
and  in  1872  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Canada  estab- 
lished a  mission  in  the  northern  part  of  the  island.  Among 
the  Japanese  who  have  gone  to  Formosa  since  its  annexa- 
tion are  Christians,  who  have  to  some  extent  joined  forces 
with  the  believers  that  they  found  in  the  island.  Some 
evangelists  have  been  sent  from  Japan,  with  the  hope  that 
they  may  find  opportunities  to  labor,  not  only  among  the 
new  immigrants,  but  also  among  the  native  Formosans. 

The  Canadian  Presbyterians,  under  the  energetic  lead- 
ership of  Dr.  Mackay,  have  done  a  remarkable  and  very 
thrilling  work.  Though  only  two  missionaries  with  their 
wives  are  in  charge,  they  and  their  native  force  of  seventy- 
six  assistants  have  worked  out  from  their  one  station 
through  fifty-six  out-stations,  until  1,623  communicants 
have  been  won.  Their  six  day-schools  contain  135  pupils, 
and  Oxford  College  is  now  training  twenty-four  students 
for  Christian  usefulness.  Last  year  their  one  hospital 
ministered  to  the  physical  ills  of  6,411  patients. 

The  English  Presbyterians,  who  had  been  on  the  Island 
seven  years  when  Dr.  Mackay  arrived,  have  naturally 
accomplished,  with  their  foreign  force  of  seven  men  and 
an  equal  number  of  women,  an  even  larger  work.  They 
occupy  two  stations  and  fifty-one  out-stations;  employ 
fifty-one  assistants ;  educate  in  their  two  colleges  sixty- 
one  students ;  have  two  hospitals  which  last  year  received 
4,500  patients;  and  in  their  churches  are  1,587  communi- 
cants. Few  fields  of  such  a  character  have  been  more 
fruitful  than  Formosa. 


APPENDIX  B 

A  Select  Bibliography — So  many  books  have  been 
written  upon  Japan  that  their  mere  names  would  fill  a 
good-sized  volume.  The  following  list  is  intended  to 
give  only  such  works  as  are  likely  to  prove  most  useful 
to  those  for  whom  the  present  text-book  is  intended. 

Griffis,  W.  E.:  The  Mikado's  Empire.     (1896.) 

Though  this  book  was  published  more  than  twenty  years  ago,  there 
is  perhaps  no  other  so  well  fitted  for  the  use  of  the  general  reader  who 
wishes  a  single  book  that  covers  nearly  all  points  connected  with  the 
subject.  By  adding  supplementary  chapters  to  later  editions,  the 
author  has  kept  the  book  up  to  the  times. 

i  Griffis,  W.  E.:    Japan,  in  its  History,  Folk-lore,  and  Art.     (1894.) 

I  A  small  volume,  written  for  young  people. 

Rein,  J.  J.:  Japan.     (1884-88.) 

Rein,  J.  J.:  The  Industries  of  Japan.     (1889.) 

These  two  books  by  Dr.  Rein,  though  not  written  in  an  interesting 
style,  are  packed  full  of  information  such  as  cannot  readily  be  found 
elsewhere. 

Chamberlain,  B.  H.:  Things  Japanese.  (1891.) 

A  dictionary  full  of  information,  written  in  an  interesting  style,  an- 
swering the  many  miscellaneous  questions  that  are  constantly  being 
asked,  and  giving  references  to  other  books  where  more  detailed  state- 
ments can  be  found. 

Murray,  D.:  The  Story  of  Japan.   (In  "Stories  of  the  Nations  "  series, 
1894.) 

JHawkes,  F.  L.:  Narrative  of  the  Expedition  under  Commodore  M.  C. 
Perry.     (1856.) 
This  work,  in  three  volumes,  published  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment, gives  an  account  of  Commodore  Perry's  E.xpedition  and  also 
several  scientific  papers.     There  is  an  abridgment  in  one  volume. 

Adams,  F.  O.:  The  History  of  Japan— to  1871.     2  vols.     (1875.) 

Black,  J.  R.:  Young  Japan,  1858-79.     2  vols.     (1880-81.) 

Norman,  H.:  The  Real  Japan,     (1895.) 

127 


128  APPENDIX  B 

Murray's  Handbook  for  Travellers  in  Japan.     (Ed.  1896.) 

Indispensable  for  travellers,  and  containing  much  general  information. 

Shigemi,  S.:  a  Japanese  Boy.     (1890.) 
Describes  home  life,  etc. 

Bacon,  A.  M.:  Japanese  Girls  and  Women.     (1891.) 

Tamura,  N.:  The  Japanese  Bride.     (1893.) 

Miss  Bacon's  book  pictures  chiefly  the  brighter  side  of  woman's 
life ;   Mr.  Tamura  gives  glimpses  of  the  other  side. 

Aston,  W.  G.:  A  History  of  Japanese  Literature.    (1899.) 

MiTFORD,  A.  B.  F.:  Tales  of  Old  Japan.    (1890.) 

These  old  stories  throw  much  light  on  ancient  life  and  customs. 

HuiSH,  M.  B.:  Japan  and  its  Art.     (1888.) 

In  large  libraries  expensive  books  on  Japanese  art,  adorned  with 
magnificent  plates,  can  be  found ;  but  this  little  book  has  been  pro- 
nounced by  competent  judges  to  be  one  of  the  best  upon  the  subject. 

Hearn,  L.:  Glimpses  of  Unfamiliar  Japan.     2  vols.     (1894.) 

Hearn,  L.:  Kokoro.     (1896.) 

Hearn,  L.:  Out  of  the  East.     (1895.) 

Hearn,  L.;  Gleanings  in  Buddha  Fields.     (1897.) 

Mr.  Hearn  embraces  every  opportunity  to  say  unpleasant  things 
about  missions  and  Christianity.  He  praises  Buddhism  and  Japan  in 
extravagant  terms.  His  essays  suggest  subjects  for  study,  though  his 
descriptions  are  one-sided  and  his  conclusions  need  to  be  closely  scru- 
tinized before  acceptance  by  others. 

Bird,  I.  L.:  Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan.     2  vols.     (1881.) 

Tristram,  H.  B.:  Rambles  in  Japan.     (1895.) 

BiCKERSTETH,  M.:  Japan  as  We  Saw  It.    (1893.) 

The  last  three  books,  selected  from  many  accounts  written  by  travel- 
lers, show  the  impressions  made  upon  those  who  visit  the  country  for  a 
limited  time.  The  writers  are  in  sympathy  with  missions  and  tell 
something  of  what  they  saw  of  their  work. 

Griffis,  W.  E.:  The  Religions  of  Japan.     (1895.) 

Atkinson,  J.  L.:  Prince  Siddartha.     (1893.) 

This  gives  the  story  of  the  founder  of  Buddhism  as  it  is  told  in  Japan. 

Casartelli:  The  Catholic  Church  in  Japan.     (1897.) 

This  little  pamphlet,  published  for  twopence  in  London  by  the 
Catholic  Truth  Society,  gives  a  succinct  account  of  the  work  of  three 
centuries  ago  as  well  as  of  that  in  modern  times. 

Coleridge,   H.  T.:    Life  and  Letters  of  St.  Francis  Xavier.     2  vols. 
(1872-73.) 

Ritter,    H.:    a    History  of    Protestant   Missions    in   Japan.     (1898.) 
This  invaluable  book  of  reference  brings  together  such  accounts  of 
the  work  of  different  missions  as  could  not  easily  be  found  elsewhere. 


APPENDIX  B  129 

Peery,  R.  B.:  The  Gist  of  Japan.     (1897.) 

Gordon,  M.  L.:  An  American  Missionary  in  Japan.    (1893.) 

These  last  two  works  supplement  each  other.  Though  to  some  ex- 
tent covering  the  same  ground,  the  former  treats  chiefly  of  Japan  as  a 
mission  field  and  considers  various  problems  connected  with  the  work  ; 
while  the  latter  describes  the  every-day  experiences  of  the  missionary 
and  relates  many  incidents  connected  with  missionaries  and  native 
Christians. 

Hardy,  A.   S.:    The  Life  of  Joseph  Neesima.     (1891.) 

Davis,  J.  D.:  A  Maker  of  New  Japan.     (1894.; 

Both  of  these  books  are  biographies  of  Dr.  Neesima.  The  former 
gives  the  fuller  account  of  various  events  in  the  life  of  its  subject; 
while  the  latter  tells  more  of  his  religious  life  and  work. 

UcHiMURA,  K.:  The  Diary  of  a  Japanese  Convert.     (1895.) 

Batchelor,  J.:  The  Ainu  of  Japan.     (1892.) 

No  other  man  knows  so  much  about  the  Ainu  as  this  missionary 
who  has  lived  among  them  and  zealously  labored  for  their  welfare. 

Campbell,  W.  :  Missionary  Success  in  Formosa.     (1889.) 

MacKay,  G.  L.:  From  Far  Formosa.     (1895.) 


Those  who  have  access  to  large  libraries  will  find  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  and  in  those  of  the  Japan  Society  (Lon* 
don),  mines  of  information  upon  various  points. 


130 


APPENDIX  C 


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ANALYTICAL  INDEX 

Besides  indicating  the  location  of  important  topics,  this  Index  is  also 
intended  for  use  in  preparing  the  various  studies.  Having  read  over  its 
analytical  outline  before  taking  up  each  chapter,  the  student  sees  exactly 
what  ground  is  covered  by  the  section  to  be  mastered.  So,  too,  after 
having  studied  the  chapter,  its  outline  can  again  be  used  in  lieu  of 
questions  put  by  a  teacher,  thus  enabling  the  student  to  see  what  topics 
have  been  forgotten.  The  numerals  following  each  topic  and  sub-topic 
refer  to  the  pages  where  they  may  be  found. 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  LAND  OF  THE  RISING  SUN 

[Study  I.] 

I.     The  name,  i. 
II.     Situation,  i,  2. 

1.  Islands  included,  i. 

2.  Latitudes  and  longitudes  compared,  z,  s. 

3.  Distance  from  Asia,  2. 

III.  Area,  2. 

1.  Compared  with  known  areas,  2. 

2.  Comparative  statement  of  different  sections  of  the  empire,  2. 

3.  Hondo,  2. 

IV.  Physical  features,  2-4. 

1.  Mountains,  2,  3. 

(1)  Mt.  Fuji,  2,  3.     (2)  Volcanoes,  3. 

2.  Kivers,  3. 
(i)  Bridge  problem,  3.    (2)  Embankments,  3. 


3.  Lakes,  3,  ^. 
(i)  Their  be 

4.  The  coast-lii 


auty,  3,  4.    (2)  Lake  Biwa,  4. 
coast-line, 
V.    Climate,  4,  5. 

1.  Temperature,  4. 

2.  Dampness,  4,  5. 

3.  Lack  of  ozone,  5. 

4.  High  winds,  5. 

5.  Effect  on  health,  5. 
VI.     Seismic  disturbances,  6. 

VII.     Productions,  6-10. 

1.  Minerals,  6. 

2.  Agricultural  wealth,  6-8. 

(1)  System  of  irrigation,  6,  7.     (2)  Rice  culture,  7.     (3)  Droughts,  7.    (4) 
Vegetables,  7.     (5)  Silk  and  tea,  7.     (6)  Fruits,  8. 

3.  Trees  and  Flowers,  8,  9. 

(i)  Timber  trees,  8.    (2)  Blossoms  and  flowers,  8.    (3)  The  bamboo,  8,  9. 

4.  Animals,  9. 

(i)  Fox  and  badger  possession,  9.    (2)  Domestic  animals,  9. 

5.  Birds,  9,  10. 

6.  Marine  products,  10. 

7.  Insects,  10. 

(i)  A  delight  to  the  eye,  10.     (2)  Others  a  source  of  discomfort,  xo. 
VIII.     Population  and  gradations  in  society,  10,  xi. 
IX,     Important  cities,  ii-i6. 
I.  Kyoto,  II,  12, 

<i)  Described,  11.   (2)  Its  fortunes  since  1868,  11, 12.    (3}  Its  religious  life,  Z3. 

132 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX  133 

3.  Tokyo,  12,  13. 

(i)  Its  founder,  12.      (2)  Description,  12,  13.     (3)  Japan's  educational  cen- 
tre, 13. 

3.  Yokohama,  13. 

(i)  Its  growth,  13.     (2)  European  section,  13. 

4.  Osaka,  13,  14. 

(i)  Its  appearance,  13,  14.     (2)  Industrial  and  social  interest,  14. 

5.  Kobe,  14,  15. 

6.  Nagasaki,  15. 

7.  Hakodate,  15. 

8.  Niigata.     "Open  ports,"  15,  16. 

9.  Other  cities,  i6. 

(1)  Sapporo,    16.      (2)  Sendai,    16.      (3)  Nikko,    16.      (4)  Nagoya,   16.     (5) 
"  Castle- towns  "  and  their  relation  to  missions,  16. 
X.     Means  of  communication,  16-18. 

1.  Steamers,  saiUng  vessels,  and  boats,  16,  17. 

2.  Railroads,  17. 

3.  Other  methods  of  travel,  17. 
(i)  The  kago,  17.     (2)  Jinrikishas,  17. 
^osts  and  telegraphs,  17,  18. 

CHAPTER  II 

THE  PEOPLE  OF  JAPAN 


6> 

4.  Pc 


[Study  II.] 

I.     The  origin  of  the  Japanese,  19. 

1.  Two  types,  19. 

2.  Two  streams  of  immigrations,  19. 
II.    The  Ainu,  19,  20. 

III.  Possible  relation  between  the  Japanese  and  the  American  Indians,  90, 

IV.  Physical  characteristics  of  the  Japanese,  20,  21, 
V.     Mental  characteristics,  21-25. 

1.  Intelligence,  21. 

2.  Cheerfulness,  21. 

3.  Inventive  power,  21. 

4.  Lack  of  steadfastness  of  purpose,  21,  22. 

5.  Changeableness,  22. 

6.  "Greatness  in  little  things,  littleness  in  great  things,**  S3,  83« 

7.  Appreciation  of  beauty,  23. 

8.  Hero-worship,  23. 

9.  Sentimental  temperament,  23,  2^. 

10.  Dull  sense  of  individual  responsibility,  24. 

11.  Comparison  with  the  Chinese,  24,  25. 
VI.     Japanese  standards  of  morality,  25-31. 

1  1.  Ideas  concerning  loyalty  and  patriotism,  25,  26. 

2.  Ideas  concerning  filial  piety,  26-28. 

(i)  Family  honor,  26,  27.     (2)  Necessity  for  family  continuity,  27.    (3)  Evils 
due  to  such  views,  27,  28. 

3.  Ideas  concerning  propriety  and  etiquette,  28. 

4.  Ideas  concerning  truthfulness,  28,  29. 

5.  Ideas  concerning  honesty,  29. 

6.  Ideas  concerning  temperance,  29,  30. 

(i)  Sak^  drinking,  29,  30.     (2)  Tobacco,  30. 

7.  Ideas  concerning  chastity,  30,  31. 

(i)  Lacking  largely,  30.     (2)  Improvement,  30,  31. 
VII.     The  position  of  woman,  ^i,  32. 

1.  High  in  comparison  with  other  Orientals,  31. 

2.  As  described  in  "  The  Great  Learning  for  Women,"  31,  32. 

3.  Divorce  and  reasons  therefor,  32. 

4.  Influence  of  Western  ideas,  32. 
VIII.     Classes  of  society,  32,  33. 

1.  The  different  classes  described,  32,  33. 

2.  The  daimyos  and  samurai,  33. 
IX.     The  language,  33,  34. 

1.  Dependence  of  Japanese  on  Chinese  characters,  33,  34. 

2.  These  idiographs  a  great  burden,  34. 

3.  Solution  of  the  difficulty,  34. 


\il 


134  ANALYTICAL  INDEX 

CHAPTER  III 

JAPAN  IN  PAST  TIMBS 

[Study  III.] 

I.    Alleged  antiquity  of  the  Imperial  dynasty,  35. 

1.  Japanese  views,  35. 

2.  Foreign  beliefs,  35. 
II,    Ancient  literature,  35,  36. 

1.  Early  works,  35,  36. 

2.  Authority  for  later  history,  36. 

III.  Early  traditions,  36,  37. 

1.  The  earliest  ones,  36. 

2.  Later  traditions,  36,  37, 

IV.  Historical  events,  37-39. 

1.  Important  changes,  37. 

2.  Rise  of  the  feudal  system,  37,  38. 

3.  Rise  of  the  Shogunate,  38. 

4.  Noted  military  rulers,  39. 

CHAPTER  IV 

REUGIONS  OF  JAPAN 

J.    Shintoism,  40-14. 

1.  Meaning  of  the  name,  40. 

2.  General  description,  40. 
Mythology,  40,  41. 
' ;)  Izanagi  and  Izanami,  40,  41.     (2)  Sun-goddess  and  Emperor,  41, 

)bjects  of  worship,  41,  42. 
(i)  Mentioned,  40.     (2)  Their  worship,  41,  42. 

5.  "  The  Revival  of  Pure  Shinto,"  42. 

6.  Shinto  shrines,  42,  43. 

(i )  Shinto  architecture,  42,  43.     (2)  Mirror  and  gohei,  43. 

7.  Priests  and  worshippers,  43,  44. 

8.  Is  Shintoism  a  religion  ?  44. 

(i)  View  of  the  educated,  44.    (2)  Of  the  masses,  44. 
II.     Buddhism,  44-48. 

1.  Introduction  into  Japan,  44. 

2.  Doctrines,  44,  45, 

(i)  Differences,  44,  45.     (2)  Some  common  views,  45. 

3.  The  Shin  sect,  45,  46. 

(i)  Beliefs  common  to  other  sects,  45.     (2)  Shin-shu  way  of  salvation,  46. 
(3)  Three  points  of  belief,  46. 

4.  Buddhist  temples,  46,  47. 

5.  Buddhist  priests,  47,  48. 

6.  Persecution  by  Buddhists,  48. 

(i)  Of  other  sects,  48.     (2)  Of  Christians,  48. 

III,  Confucianism,  48,  49. 

IV.  Other  religious  systems,  49,  50. 

1.  Kurozumi,  49,  50. 

(i)  His  experience,  49.     (2)  Sect  characteristics,  49,  50. 

2.  Tenrikyo,  50. 

(i)  Origin  and  character,  50.     (2)  Its  propagation,  50. 

CHAPTER  V 

JESUIT  MISSIONS 

[Study  IV.] 

I.    Europeans  become  acquainted  with  Japan,  51. 
II.     The  missionaries,  51-53. 

1.  Xavier,  51,  52. 

(i)  Reason  for  entering  Japan,  51,  52.     (2)  His  work  there,  $2. 

2.  Xavier's  successors,  52,  53, 

III.  Conditions  that  aided  the  Jesuits,  53,  54. 

1.  Religious,  53. 

2.  Political,  53,  54. 

IV.  Persecution  of  the  Christians,  54-57. 
I.   By  Hideyoshi,  54. 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX  135 


2.  By  Ie3rMu,  54,  11. 

(i)  Its  rise,  54,  55. 

3.  Revolt  of  the  Christians,  55,  56. 

4.  Christianity  not  wholly  destroyed,  56,  57. 

(i)  Dr.  Graffis's  statement,  56.     (2)  Christianity  not  stamped  out,  56,  57. 


(i)  Its  rise,  54,  55.    (2)  Sufferings  of  the  martyrs,  55. 

'!;hri! 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  LOCKING  AND  THE  UNLOCKING 

I.  A  closed  nation,  58,  59. 

1.  Results  of  foreign  intercourse,  58. 

2.  The  doors  closed,  58. 

3.  The  Dutch  merchants,  58,  59. 

(i)  Their  limitations,  58,  59.    (2)  Why  allowed  to  remain,  59. 

II.  Attempts  to  open  Japan,  59,  60. 

1.  Various  efforts,  59. 

2.  Return  of  wrecked  sailofs,  59,  60. 
III.    The  opening,  60-62. 

1.  The  American  Expedition,  60. 

(i)  Perry's  first  visit,  60.     (2)  American  treaty,  60. 

2.  Treaties  with  European  nations,  60,  61. 

3.  The  treaties  of  1858,  61. 

4.  Attacks  upon  foreigners,  61. 

5.  Bombardment  of  Kagoshima  and  Shimonoseki,  61,  62. 

6.  The  Emperor  ratifies  the  treaties,  62. 

CHAPTER  VII 

THE  REVOLUTION 

I.    What  it  was,  63. 
II.    Its  progress,  63-66. 

1.  Preparatory  agitation,  63,  64. 

2.  Effect  of  the  foreign  treaties,  64. 

3.  Resignation  of  the  Shogun,  64,  65. 

4.  The  Emperor's  oath,  65. 

5.  Transfer  of  the  capital,  65. 

6.  The  end  of  feudalism,  65,  66. 

(i)  Noble  action  of  the  daimyos,  65,  66.     (2)  Later  fortunes  of  daimyos  and 
their  retainers,  66. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

NEW  JAPAN 

[Study  V.] 

I.    Changed  attitude  toward  Western  civilization,  67,  68. 

1.  Employment  of  foreign  instructors,  67. 

2.  Changes  introduced,  67,  68. 

(1)  Material  changes,  67.     (2)  Moral  reforms,  67,  68. 

3.  An  embassy  sent  to  the  West,  68. 

II.  Later  changes,  68-71. 

1.  Political  changes,  68,  69. 

(i)  Transition  period,  68.    (2)  Movement  of  1877,  6g.      (3)  Reorganizatioa 
of  1885,  69.     (4)  Events  of  1889,  1890,  and  1898,  69. 

2.  Educational,  material,  and  social  changes ;  reaction,  69-71. 

III.  The  Satsuma  Rebellion,  71,  72. 
X.  Satsuma,  71. 

2.  Disaffection  of  the  Satsuma  men,  71,  7a. 

3.  The  rebellion,  72. 

IV.  War  with  China,  73. 
X.  The  war,  73. 

2.  Some  of  its  results,  73. 

V.    Revision  of  the  treaties,  73,  74. 
X.  The  discussion,  73,  74. 

3.  Action  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  74. 


